https://unlarchive.org/wiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=RonaldotmartinsUNLwiki - User contributions [en]2026-05-10T10:27:11ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.44.2https://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Numeral&diff=16758Numeral2026-04-17T12:07:12Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Reverted edit by imported>Vzakharov (talk) to last revision by imported>Martins</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Numerals''' are LRUs that represent numbers.<br />
<br />
== Natural Language ==<br />
In the UNL<sup>arium</sup> framework, numerals are classified as:<br />
*cardinal (CDN): describe quantity (“two”, “three”)<br />
*ordinal (ORD): describe position (“first”, “second”)<br />
*partitive (PTN): describe division (“half”, “two thirds”)<br />
*multiplicative (MLN): describe repetition (“once”, “twice”)<br />
*distributive (DTN): describe distributions (“in pairs”, “by the dozen”)<br />
Numeral determiners must be classified as numerals. <br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
In UNL, numerals are to be replaced by numbers, without separators for thousands, and with "." for decimals. They are temporary UWs. <br />
<br />
;Cardinal numerals<br />
::1 = 1<br />
::one = 1<br />
::2 = 2<br />
::two = 2<br />
::MDCCCIX = 1819<br />
::1000000 = 1000000<br />
::1 000 000 = 1000000<br />
::1,000,000 = 1000000<br />
::3.14159 = 3.14159<br />
::3,14159 = 3.14159<br />
<br />
;Ordinal numerals<br />
:To be represented as @ordinal<br />
::1st = 1.@ordinal<br />
::first = 1.@ordinal<br />
<br />
;Partitive numerals<br />
:To be represented as cardinal numerals<br />
::1/3 = 1/3<br />
::one third = 1/3<br />
::half = 1/2<br />
::quarter = 1/4<br />
<br />
;Multiplicative numerals<br />
:To be represented as @times<br />
::once = 1.@times<br />
::twice = 2.@times<br />
::thrice = 3.@times<br />
::four times = 4.@times<br />
<br />
;Collective numerals<br />
:To be represented as @tuple<br />
::double = 2.@tuple<br />
::triple = 3.@tuple<br />
::sextuple = 6.@tuple</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Number&diff=16757Number2026-04-17T12:06:11Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Natural Language */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Number''' is a category that typically corresponds to the actual quantity of the referents of a given noun. <br />
<br />
== Natural Language ==<br />
In natural languages, number may be realised by grammatical affixes (such as "s" for plural, in English) or by quantifiers (such as "a couple of", "many", etc).<br><br />
In the UNLarium framework, the grammatical category of number may assume the following values:<br />
<br />
* NUM<br />
** singular (SNG): one of a class<br />
** singulare tantum (SNGT): used only in singular<br />
** plural (PLR): more than one of a class<br />
*** dual (DUA): two of a class<br />
*** trial (TRI): three of a class<br />
*** quadrual (QDR): four of a class<br />
*** paucal (PAU): few of a class<br />
*** multal (MUL): many of a class<br />
*** plurale tantum (PLRT): used only in plural<br />
** Invariant (INV): a single form used both in singular and plural<br />
;The plural (PLR) subsumes more specific number values and must be used when there is no particular information on the quantity of the reference.<br><br />
:books = PLR<br />
:pants = PLR<br />
:glasses = PLR<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
<br />
*singular (SNG): book, city, kiss<br />
*singulare tantum (SNGT): furniture<br />
*plural (PLR): books, cities, kisses<br />
*plurale tantum (PLRT): clothes, measles<br />
*invariant (INV): series, species<br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
In UNL, number is represented by [[quantifier|quantifying attributes]].</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Number&diff=16756Number2026-04-17T12:05:03Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Natural Language */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Number''' is a category that typically corresponds to the actual quantity of the referents of a given noun. <br />
<br />
== Natural Language ==<br />
In natural languages, number may be realised by grammatical affixes (such as "s" for plural, in English) or by quantifiers (such as "a couple of", "many", etc).<br><br />
In the UNLarium framework, the grammatical category of number may assume the following values:<br />
<br />
NUM<br />
<br />
<nowiki>*</nowiki>singular (SNG): one of a class<br />
<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki>singulare tantum (SNGT): used only in singular<br />
<br />
<nowiki>*</nowiki>plural (PLR): more than one of a class<br />
<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki>dual (DUA): two of a class<br />
<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki>trial (TRI): three of a class<br />
<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki>quadrual (QDR): four of a class<br />
<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki>paucal (PAU): few of a class<br />
<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki>multal (MUL): many of a class<br />
<br />
<nowiki>**</nowiki>plurale tantum (PLRT): used only in plural<br />
<br />
<nowiki>*</nowiki>invariant (INV): a single form used both in singular and plural<br />
<br />
<br />
;The plural (PLR) subsumes more specific number values and must be used when there is no particular information on the quantity of the reference.<br><br />
:books = PLR<br />
:pants = PLR<br />
:glasses = PLR<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
<br />
*singular (SNG): book, city, kiss<br />
*singulare tantum (SNGT): furniture<br />
*plural (PLR): books, cities, kisses<br />
*plurale tantum (PLRT): clothes, measles<br />
*invariant (INV): series, species<br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
In UNL, number is represented by [[quantifier|quantifying attributes]].</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Number&diff=16755Number2026-04-17T12:02:39Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Number''' is a category that typically corresponds to the actual quantity of the referents of a given noun. <br />
<br />
== Natural Language ==<br />
In natural languages, number may be realised by grammatical affixes (such as "s" for plural, in English) or by quantifiers (such as "a couple of", "many", etc).<br><br />
In the UNLarium framework, the grammatical category of number may assume the following values:<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|openlevels=0|root=Number (NUM)|<br />
*singular (SNG): one of a class<br />
**singulare tantum (SNGT): used only in singular<br />
*plural (PLR): more than one of a class<br />
**dual (DUA): two of a class<br />
**trial (TRI): three of a class<br />
**quadrual (QDR): four of a class<br />
**paucal (PAU): few of a class<br />
**multal (MUL): many of a class<br />
**plurale tantum (PLRT): used only in plural<br />
*invariant (INV): a single form used both in singular and plural<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
;The plural (PLR) subsumes more specific number values and must be used when there is no particular information on the quantity of the reference.<br><br />
:books = PLR<br />
:pants = PLR<br />
:glasses = PLR<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
<br />
*singular (SNG): book, city, kiss<br />
*singulare tantum (SNGT): furniture<br />
*plural (PLR): books, cities, kisses<br />
*plurale tantum (PLRT): clothes, measles<br />
*invariant (INV): series, species<br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
In UNL, number is represented by [[quantifier|quantifying attributes]].</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNL&diff=16754UNL2025-10-24T15:30:21Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Universal Networking Language''' (UNL) is an artificial language created to represent and process information across language barriers. <br />
<br />
== Mission ==<br />
Conceived within the scope of the [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000104267 Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights] (1996, Barcelona), UNL was proposed as a technological response to the digital divide and to global language barriers, linguistic imperialism, and language prejudice, as well as to the asymmetry of information and accessibility issues that results from them. It sought to promote a more equitable exchange of knowledge across languages, fostering inclusion, mutual understanding, and respect for linguistic diversity.<br />
<br />
== History == <br />
<br />
The [[UNL Programme]] started in 1996, as an initiative of the [http://www.ias.unu.edu Institute of Advanced Studies] of the [http://www.unu.edu United Nations University] in Tokyo, Japan. In January 2001, the United Nations University set up an autonomous organization, the [http://www.undlfoundation.org UNDL Foundation], to be responsible for the development and management of the UNL Programme. The Foundation, a non-profit international organisation, has an independent identity from the United Nations University, although it has special links with the United Nations. It inherited from the UNU/IAS the mandate of implementing the UNL Programme. Its headquarters are based in Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
<br />
The UNL Programme has already crossed important milestones. The overall architecture of the UNL System has been developed with a set of basic software and tools necessary for its functioning. These are being tested and improved. A vast amount of linguistic resources from the various native languages already under development has been accumulated in the last few years. Moreover, the technical infrastructure for expanding these resources is already in place, thus facilitating the participation of many more languages in the UNL system from now on. A growing number of scientific papers and academic dissertations on the UNL are being published every year. <br />
<br />
The most visible accomplishment so far is the recognition by the Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT) of the innovative character and industrial applicability of the UNL, which was obtained in May 2002 through the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Acquiring the patent for the UNL is a completely novel achievement within the United Nations.<br />
<br />
== Commitments ==<br />
The main goal of the UNL Programme is to construct the UNL, an artificial language that can be used to process information across the language barriers. The major commitments of the UNL are the following:<br />
<br />
;I - The UNL must represent information<br />
:The UNL is first and foremost a knowledge representation language. The most important corollary of this first commitment is that UNL is not a meta-language, i.e., it is not intended to describe or represent natural languages; on the contrary, it is used to represent the information conveyed by natural languages. The goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said". Accordingly, the UNL provides an '''interpretation''' rather than a translation of a given utterance. The UNL version of an existing document is not bound to preserve the lexical and the syntactic choices of the original, but must represent, in a non-ambiguous format, one of its possible meanings, preferably the most conventional one.<br />
<br />
;II - The UNL must be a language for computers<br />
:The UNL is an artificial language shaped to represent knowledge in a machine-tractable format. Like other formal systems, it seeks to provide the infrastructure for computers to handle what is meant by natural languages. Differently from other auxiliary languages (such as Esperanto, Interlingua, Volapük, Ido and others), the UNL is not intended to be a human language. We do not expect people to speak UNL or to communicate in UNL. But we do expect computers to process UNL: to generate UNL out of natural language, and vice-versa, with and without human aid. We expect computers to be able to extract information from UNL documents, and to detect paraphrases, entailments, implicatures, presuppositions, inferences, contradictions and redundancies among a set of propositions represented in UNL. <br />
<br />
;III - The UNL must be self-sufficient<br />
:In the UNL approach, there are two basic movements: [[UNLization]] and [[NLization]]. UNLization is the process of representing the information conveyed by natural language into UNL; NLization, conversely, is the process of generating a natural language document out of UNL. In order to be fully "understandable" (and manageable) by machines, the UNL must be self-sufficient, i.e., should be as semantically complete and saturated as possible. The UNL representation must not depend on any implicit knowledge, and should explicitly codify all information. This means that the UNLization should be completely independent from the NLization, and vice-versa, i.e., the UNLization should not take into consideration which will be the target language or format of any future NLization; and the NLization should not need any information about the original source language or previous structure of any UNL document. <br />
<br />
;IV - The UNL must be general-purpose<br />
:At first glance, the UNL seems to be a pivot-language to which the source texts are converted before being translated into the target languages. It can, in fact, be used for such a purpose, but its primary objective is to serve as an infrastructure for handling knowledge. In addition to translation, the UNL is expected to be used in several other different tasks, such as text mining, multilingual document generation, summarization, text simplification, information retrieval and extraction, sentiment analysis etc. Indeed, in UNL-based systems there is no need for the source language to be different from the target language: an English text may be represented in UNL in order to be generated, once again, in English, as a summarized, a simplified, a localized or a simply rephrased version of the original. <br />
<br />
;V - The UNL must be independent from any particular natural language<br />
:The UNL is expected to be the language of the United Nations and, therefore, must not be circumscribed to any existing natural language in particular, under the risk of being rejected by the state members of the General Assembly.<br />
<br />
== Assumptions ==<br />
;1. Languages convey information<br />
:The UNL assumes that one of the most outstanding uses of natural languages is to convey '''information''', i.e., that natural languages can be used to represent what we know about the world. This "aboutness" of natural languages, i.e., its representational role, is the main object of the UNL, which is expected, not to do what natural languages do, but to represent what they represent.<br />
<br />
;2. Information can be represented by semantic networks<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural language can be formally and usefully represented by a '''semantic network'''. This idea is not new. Semantic networks have been used in knowledge representation at least since Charles S. Peirce, and as an interlingua for machine translation since the 1950's. In the UNL approach, this semantic network (or UNL graph) is made of three different types of discrete semantic entities: concepts, relations and attributes. Concepts are nodes in the network; relations are arcs linking nodes; and attributes are used to delimit the use of nodes. This three-layered representation model is the cornerstone of the UNL, and a distinctive feature over other semantic networks, which normally propose only two levels: edges and vertices. <br />
<br />
;3. Any information may be expressed in any language<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural languages is '''translatable''', i.e., that natural languages differ, not in their power to express information, but in the way they do that. The UNL also assumes that, in order to ensure this "translatability" of information, the semantic network must be independent of any natural language in particular (i.e., it must be "universal"<ref>The idea of "universality", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all" (as in "Coordinated '''Universal''' Time (UTC)", or in "'''universal''' adapter"), rather than "common to all" (as in "'''Universal''' Grammar"). See [[Universal]].</ref>). This is achieved by defining a standard (uniform) set of universally-accessible semantic entities, which are the elements of UNL: [[Universal Word]]s (or UW's), [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
<br />
== Properties ==<br />
;Non-Ambiguity<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is not expected to have any ambiguity, at any level. The sentence "The girls saw the boy with the telescope" must be represented, in UNL, in a way that there is no ambiguity concerning the meaning of "saw" (past tense of the verb "to see" x present tense of the verb "to saw" x noun "saw") or the dependency relations of "with the telescope" ("saw with the telescope" x "the boy with the telescope").<br />
;Non-Redundancy<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to have any redundancy. Expressions such as "free gift", "round circle" and "murder to death" are expected to be represented, in UNL, as "gift", "circle" and "murder", respectively. Likewise, sentences such as "Peter killed John", "Peter murdered John", "It's Peter who killed John" and "John was killed by Peter" are expected to be represented in UNL in the same way<ref>The differences between them can be represented by attributes such as @topic and @passive, but this is rather optional, because the goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said" or "how it was said".</ref>.<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is always literal, i.e., fully compositional. UNL expressions must derive their semantic value thoroughly from their components, which must be explicitly defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]]. Accordingly, the UNL does not allow for any figure of speech, such as metaphor and metonymy. Tropes must be represented, in UNL, by their intended meaning. A sentence such as "John devoured thousands of books", for instance, must be represented, in UNL, as "John read many books eagerly"<ref>The information that this content has been conveyed through figurative language can be indicated by the corresponding attributes (@metaphor, @hyperbole, etc.), but this is optional.</ref>. <br />
;Declarativeness<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to perform speech acts (such as promises, requests, orders etc.), but only to describe them in a constative manner. For instance, given a performative utterance such as "Can you pass me the salt?", the role of the UNL is to represent "you pass the salt to me" and to indicate that this was a polite request<ref>This can be done by the use of the attributes @polite and @request.</ref>. The UNL representation itself will not be a request, nor will be bound to provoke the same (perlocutionary) effect caused by the original utterance.<br />
;Completeness<br />
:As a fully-explicit semantic system, the UNL is not expected to have ellipses or pro-forms, except when the referent is not present in the document (exophora). A sentence such as "The monkey took the banana and ate it" must be represented, in UNL, as "[The monkey]<sub>i</sub> took [the banana]<sub>j</sub> and [the monkey]<sub>i</sub> ate [the banana]<sub>j</sub>".<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
{{:Semantic network}}<br />
<br />
== UNL Specs ==<br />
The structure of the UNL is defined by the [[Specs|UNL Specs]]. The UNL Specs specify the structure of a UNL document; the syntax of a UNL graph; the syntax of Universal Words; the set of relations; the set of attributes; and all the information concerning UNL as a formalism:<br />
*[[Universal Words]]<br />
*[[Universal Attributes]]<br />
*[[Universal Relations]]<br />
*[[UNL sentence|UNL sentence structure]]<br />
*[[UNL document|UNL document structure]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* Martins, R. (ed). (2013). Lexical issues of UNL. Cambridge Scholar Publishing.<br />
* Uchida, H.; Zhu, M.; Della Senta, T. (1999). A gift for a millenium. Tokyo: IAS/UNU.<br />
* UNL. (1996). Universal Networking Language: an electronic language for communication, understanding and collaboration. Tokyo: UNL Center.<br />
* Cardeñosa, J.; Gelbukh, A.; Tovar, E. (Eds.) (2005). [http://www.cicling.org/2005/UNL-book/ Universal Networking Language: Advances in Theory and Applications]. 443 pp.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNL&diff=16753UNL2025-10-24T15:13:54Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Universal Networking Language''' (UNL) is an artificial language created to represent and process information across language barriers. <br />
<br />
== Mission ==<br />
Conceived within the scope of the [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000104267 Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights (1996, Barcelona)], UNL was proposed as a technological response to the digital divide and to global language barriers, linguistic imperialism, and language prejudice, as well as to the asymmetry of information and accessibility issues that results from them. It sought to promote a more equitable exchange of knowledge across languages, fostering inclusion, mutual understanding, and respect for linguistic diversity.<br />
<br />
== History == <br />
<br />
The [[UNL Programme]] started in 1996, as an initiative of the [http://www.ias.unu.edu Institute of Advanced Studies] of the [http://www.unu.edu United Nations University] in Tokyo, Japan. In January 2001, the United Nations University set up an autonomous organization, the [http://www.undlfoundation.org UNDL Foundation], to be responsible for the development and management of the UNL Programme. The Foundation, a non-profit international organisation, has an independent identity from the United Nations University, although it has special links with the United Nations. It inherited from the UNU/IAS the mandate of implementing the UNL Programme. Its headquarters are based in Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
<br />
The UNL Programme has already crossed important milestones. The overall architecture of the UNL System has been developed with a set of basic software and tools necessary for its functioning. These are being tested and improved. A vast amount of linguistic resources from the various native languages already under development has been accumulated in the last few years. Moreover, the technical infrastructure for expanding these resources is already in place, thus facilitating the participation of many more languages in the UNL system from now on. A growing number of scientific papers and academic dissertations on the UNL are being published every year. <br />
<br />
The most visible accomplishment so far is the recognition by the Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT) of the innovative character and industrial applicability of the UNL, which was obtained in May 2002 through the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Acquiring the patent for the UNL is a completely novel achievement within the United Nations.<br />
<br />
== Commitments ==<br />
The main goal of the UNL Programme is to construct the UNL, an artificial language that can be used to process information across the language barriers. The major commitments of the UNL are the following:<br />
<br />
;I - The UNL must represent information<br />
:The UNL is first and foremost a knowledge representation language. The most important corollary of this first commitment is that UNL is not a meta-language, i.e., it is not intended to describe or represent natural languages; on the contrary, it is used to represent the information conveyed by natural languages. The goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said". Accordingly, the UNL provides an '''interpretation''' rather than a translation of a given utterance. The UNL version of an existing document is not bound to preserve the lexical and the syntactic choices of the original, but must represent, in a non-ambiguous format, one of its possible meanings, preferably the most conventional one.<br />
<br />
;II - The UNL must be a language for computers<br />
:The UNL is an artificial language shaped to represent knowledge in a machine-tractable format. Like other formal systems, it seeks to provide the infrastructure for computers to handle what is meant by natural languages. Differently from other auxiliary languages (such as Esperanto, Interlingua, Volapük, Ido and others), the UNL is not intended to be a human language. We do not expect people to speak UNL or to communicate in UNL. But we do expect computers to process UNL: to generate UNL out of natural language, and vice-versa, with and without human aid. We expect computers to be able to extract information from UNL documents, and to detect paraphrases, entailments, implicatures, presuppositions, inferences, contradictions and redundancies among a set of propositions represented in UNL. <br />
<br />
;III - The UNL must be self-sufficient<br />
:In the UNL approach, there are two basic movements: [[UNLization]] and [[NLization]]. UNLization is the process of representing the information conveyed by natural language into UNL; NLization, conversely, is the process of generating a natural language document out of UNL. In order to be fully "understandable" (and manageable) by machines, the UNL must be self-sufficient, i.e., should be as semantically complete and saturated as possible. The UNL representation must not depend on any implicit knowledge, and should explicitly codify all information. This means that the UNLization should be completely independent from the NLization, and vice-versa, i.e., the UNLization should not take into consideration which will be the target language or format of any future NLization; and the NLization should not need any information about the original source language or previous structure of any UNL document. <br />
<br />
;IV - The UNL must be general-purpose<br />
:At first glance, the UNL seems to be a pivot-language to which the source texts are converted before being translated into the target languages. It can, in fact, be used for such a purpose, but its primary objective is to serve as an infrastructure for handling knowledge. In addition to translation, the UNL is expected to be used in several other different tasks, such as text mining, multilingual document generation, summarization, text simplification, information retrieval and extraction, sentiment analysis etc. Indeed, in UNL-based systems there is no need for the source language to be different from the target language: an English text may be represented in UNL in order to be generated, once again, in English, as a summarized, a simplified, a localized or a simply rephrased version of the original. <br />
<br />
;V - The UNL must be independent from any particular natural language<br />
:The UNL is expected to be the language of the United Nations and, therefore, must not be circumscribed to any existing natural language in particular, under the risk of being rejected by the state members of the General Assembly.<br />
<br />
== Assumptions ==<br />
;1. Languages convey information<br />
:The UNL assumes that one of the most outstanding uses of natural languages is to convey '''information''', i.e., that natural languages can be used to represent what we know about the world. This "aboutness" of natural languages, i.e., its representational role, is the main object of the UNL, which is expected, not to do what natural languages do, but to represent what they represent.<br />
<br />
;2. Information can be represented by semantic networks<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural language can be formally and usefully represented by a '''semantic network'''. This idea is not new. Semantic networks have been used in knowledge representation at least since Charles S. Peirce, and as an interlingua for machine translation since the 1950's. In the UNL approach, this semantic network (or UNL graph) is made of three different types of discrete semantic entities: concepts, relations and attributes. Concepts are nodes in the network; relations are arcs linking nodes; and attributes are used to delimit the use of nodes. This three-layered representation model is the cornerstone of the UNL, and a distinctive feature over other semantic networks, which normally propose only two levels: edges and vertices. <br />
<br />
;3. Any information may be expressed in any language<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural languages is '''translatable''', i.e., that natural languages differ, not in their power to express information, but in the way they do that. The UNL also assumes that, in order to ensure this "translatability" of information, the semantic network must be independent of any natural language in particular (i.e., it must be "universal"<ref>The idea of "universality", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all" (as in "Coordinated '''Universal''' Time (UTC)", or in "'''universal''' adapter"), rather than "common to all" (as in "'''Universal''' Grammar"). See [[Universal]].</ref>). This is achieved by defining a standard (uniform) set of universally-accessible semantic entities, which are the elements of UNL: [[Universal Word]]s (or UW's), [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
<br />
== Properties ==<br />
;Non-Ambiguity<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is not expected to have any ambiguity, at any level. The sentence "The girls saw the boy with the telescope" must be represented, in UNL, in a way that there is no ambiguity concerning the meaning of "saw" (past tense of the verb "to see" x present tense of the verb "to saw" x noun "saw") or the dependency relations of "with the telescope" ("saw with the telescope" x "the boy with the telescope").<br />
;Non-Redundancy<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to have any redundancy. Expressions such as "free gift", "round circle" and "murder to death" are expected to be represented, in UNL, as "gift", "circle" and "murder", respectively. Likewise, sentences such as "Peter killed John", "Peter murdered John", "It's Peter who killed John" and "John was killed by Peter" are expected to be represented in UNL in the same way<ref>The differences between them can be represented by attributes such as @topic and @passive, but this is rather optional, because the goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said" or "how it was said".</ref>.<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is always literal, i.e., fully compositional. UNL expressions must derive their semantic value thoroughly from their components, which must be explicitly defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]]. Accordingly, the UNL does not allow for any figure of speech, such as metaphor and metonymy. Tropes must be represented, in UNL, by their intended meaning. A sentence such as "John devoured thousands of books", for instance, must be represented, in UNL, as "John read many books eagerly"<ref>The information that this content has been conveyed through figurative language can be indicated by the corresponding attributes (@metaphor, @hyperbole, etc.), but this is optional.</ref>. <br />
;Declarativeness<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to perform speech acts (such as promises, requests, orders etc.), but only to describe them in a constative manner. For instance, given a performative utterance such as "Can you pass me the salt?", the role of the UNL is to represent "you pass the salt to me" and to indicate that this was a polite request<ref>This can be done by the use of the attributes @polite and @request.</ref>. The UNL representation itself will not be a request, nor will be bound to provoke the same (perlocutionary) effect caused by the original utterance.<br />
;Completeness<br />
:As a fully-explicit semantic system, the UNL is not expected to have ellipses or pro-forms, except when the referent is not present in the document (exophora). A sentence such as "The monkey took the banana and ate it" must be represented, in UNL, as "[The monkey]<sub>i</sub> took [the banana]<sub>j</sub> and [the monkey]<sub>i</sub> ate [the banana]<sub>j</sub>".<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
{{:Semantic network}}<br />
<br />
== UNL Specs ==<br />
The structure of the UNL is defined by the [[Specs|UNL Specs]]. The UNL Specs specify the structure of a UNL document; the syntax of a UNL graph; the syntax of Universal Words; the set of relations; the set of attributes; and all the information concerning UNL as a formalism:<br />
*[[Universal Words]]<br />
*[[Universal Attributes]]<br />
*[[Universal Relations]]<br />
*[[UNL sentence|UNL sentence structure]]<br />
*[[UNL document|UNL document structure]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* Martins, R. (ed). (2013). Lexical issues of UNL. Cambridge Scholar Publishing.<br />
* Uchida, H.; Zhu, M.; Della Senta, T. (1999). A gift for a millenium. Tokyo: IAS/UNU.<br />
* UNL. (1996). Universal Networking Language: an electronic language for communication, understanding and collaboration. Tokyo: UNL Center.<br />
* Cardeñosa, J.; Gelbukh, A.; Tovar, E. (Eds.) (2005). [http://www.cicling.org/2005/UNL-book/ Universal Networking Language: Advances in Theory and Applications]. 443 pp.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNL&diff=16752UNL2025-10-24T15:12:11Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Universal Networking Language''' (UNL) is an artificial language created to represent and process information across language barriers. <br />
<br />
== Mission ==<br />
Conceived within the scope of the [Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights (1996, Barcelona) https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000104267], UNL was proposed as a technological response to the digital divide and to global language barriers, linguistic imperialism, and language prejudice, as well as to the asymmetry of information and accessibility issues that results from them. It sought to promote a more equitable exchange of knowledge across languages, fostering inclusion, mutual understanding, and respect for linguistic diversity.<br />
<br />
== History == <br />
<br />
The [[UNL Programme]] started in 1996, as an initiative of the [http://www.ias.unu.edu Institute of Advanced Studies] of the [http://www.unu.edu United Nations University] in Tokyo, Japan. In January 2001, the United Nations University set up an autonomous organization, the [http://www.undlfoundation.org UNDL Foundation], to be responsible for the development and management of the UNL Programme. The Foundation, a non-profit international organisation, has an independent identity from the United Nations University, although it has special links with the United Nations. It inherited from the UNU/IAS the mandate of implementing the UNL Programme. Its headquarters are based in Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
<br />
The UNL Programme has already crossed important milestones. The overall architecture of the UNL System has been developed with a set of basic software and tools necessary for its functioning. These are being tested and improved. A vast amount of linguistic resources from the various native languages already under development has been accumulated in the last few years. Moreover, the technical infrastructure for expanding these resources is already in place, thus facilitating the participation of many more languages in the UNL system from now on. A growing number of scientific papers and academic dissertations on the UNL are being published every year. <br />
<br />
The most visible accomplishment so far is the recognition by the Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT) of the innovative character and industrial applicability of the UNL, which was obtained in May 2002 through the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Acquiring the patent for the UNL is a completely novel achievement within the United Nations.<br />
<br />
== Commitments ==<br />
The main goal of the UNL Programme is to construct the UNL, an artificial language that can be used to process information across the language barriers. The major commitments of the UNL are the following:<br />
<br />
;I - The UNL must represent information<br />
:The UNL is first and foremost a knowledge representation language. The most important corollary of this first commitment is that UNL is not a meta-language, i.e., it is not intended to describe or represent natural languages; on the contrary, it is used to represent the information conveyed by natural languages. The goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said". Accordingly, the UNL provides an '''interpretation''' rather than a translation of a given utterance. The UNL version of an existing document is not bound to preserve the lexical and the syntactic choices of the original, but must represent, in a non-ambiguous format, one of its possible meanings, preferably the most conventional one.<br />
<br />
;II - The UNL must be a language for computers<br />
:The UNL is an artificial language shaped to represent knowledge in a machine-tractable format. Like other formal systems, it seeks to provide the infrastructure for computers to handle what is meant by natural languages. Differently from other auxiliary languages (such as Esperanto, Interlingua, Volapük, Ido and others), the UNL is not intended to be a human language. We do not expect people to speak UNL or to communicate in UNL. But we do expect computers to process UNL: to generate UNL out of natural language, and vice-versa, with and without human aid. We expect computers to be able to extract information from UNL documents, and to detect paraphrases, entailments, implicatures, presuppositions, inferences, contradictions and redundancies among a set of propositions represented in UNL. <br />
<br />
;III - The UNL must be self-sufficient<br />
:In the UNL approach, there are two basic movements: [[UNLization]] and [[NLization]]. UNLization is the process of representing the information conveyed by natural language into UNL; NLization, conversely, is the process of generating a natural language document out of UNL. In order to be fully "understandable" (and manageable) by machines, the UNL must be self-sufficient, i.e., should be as semantically complete and saturated as possible. The UNL representation must not depend on any implicit knowledge, and should explicitly codify all information. This means that the UNLization should be completely independent from the NLization, and vice-versa, i.e., the UNLization should not take into consideration which will be the target language or format of any future NLization; and the NLization should not need any information about the original source language or previous structure of any UNL document. <br />
<br />
;IV - The UNL must be general-purpose<br />
:At first glance, the UNL seems to be a pivot-language to which the source texts are converted before being translated into the target languages. It can, in fact, be used for such a purpose, but its primary objective is to serve as an infrastructure for handling knowledge. In addition to translation, the UNL is expected to be used in several other different tasks, such as text mining, multilingual document generation, summarization, text simplification, information retrieval and extraction, sentiment analysis etc. Indeed, in UNL-based systems there is no need for the source language to be different from the target language: an English text may be represented in UNL in order to be generated, once again, in English, as a summarized, a simplified, a localized or a simply rephrased version of the original. <br />
<br />
;V - The UNL must be independent from any particular natural language<br />
:The UNL is expected to be the language of the United Nations and, therefore, must not be circumscribed to any existing natural language in particular, under the risk of being rejected by the state members of the General Assembly.<br />
<br />
== Assumptions ==<br />
;1. Languages convey information<br />
:The UNL assumes that one of the most outstanding uses of natural languages is to convey '''information''', i.e., that natural languages can be used to represent what we know about the world. This "aboutness" of natural languages, i.e., its representational role, is the main object of the UNL, which is expected, not to do what natural languages do, but to represent what they represent.<br />
<br />
;2. Information can be represented by semantic networks<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural language can be formally and usefully represented by a '''semantic network'''. This idea is not new. Semantic networks have been used in knowledge representation at least since Charles S. Peirce, and as an interlingua for machine translation since the 1950's. In the UNL approach, this semantic network (or UNL graph) is made of three different types of discrete semantic entities: concepts, relations and attributes. Concepts are nodes in the network; relations are arcs linking nodes; and attributes are used to delimit the use of nodes. This three-layered representation model is the cornerstone of the UNL, and a distinctive feature over other semantic networks, which normally propose only two levels: edges and vertices. <br />
<br />
;3. Any information may be expressed in any language<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural languages is '''translatable''', i.e., that natural languages differ, not in their power to express information, but in the way they do that. The UNL also assumes that, in order to ensure this "translatability" of information, the semantic network must be independent of any natural language in particular (i.e., it must be "universal"<ref>The idea of "universality", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all" (as in "Coordinated '''Universal''' Time (UTC)", or in "'''universal''' adapter"), rather than "common to all" (as in "'''Universal''' Grammar"). See [[Universal]].</ref>). This is achieved by defining a standard (uniform) set of universally-accessible semantic entities, which are the elements of UNL: [[Universal Word]]s (or UW's), [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
<br />
== Properties ==<br />
;Non-Ambiguity<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is not expected to have any ambiguity, at any level. The sentence "The girls saw the boy with the telescope" must be represented, in UNL, in a way that there is no ambiguity concerning the meaning of "saw" (past tense of the verb "to see" x present tense of the verb "to saw" x noun "saw") or the dependency relations of "with the telescope" ("saw with the telescope" x "the boy with the telescope").<br />
;Non-Redundancy<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to have any redundancy. Expressions such as "free gift", "round circle" and "murder to death" are expected to be represented, in UNL, as "gift", "circle" and "murder", respectively. Likewise, sentences such as "Peter killed John", "Peter murdered John", "It's Peter who killed John" and "John was killed by Peter" are expected to be represented in UNL in the same way<ref>The differences between them can be represented by attributes such as @topic and @passive, but this is rather optional, because the goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said" or "how it was said".</ref>.<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is always literal, i.e., fully compositional. UNL expressions must derive their semantic value thoroughly from their components, which must be explicitly defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]]. Accordingly, the UNL does not allow for any figure of speech, such as metaphor and metonymy. Tropes must be represented, in UNL, by their intended meaning. A sentence such as "John devoured thousands of books", for instance, must be represented, in UNL, as "John read many books eagerly"<ref>The information that this content has been conveyed through figurative language can be indicated by the corresponding attributes (@metaphor, @hyperbole, etc.), but this is optional.</ref>. <br />
;Declarativeness<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to perform speech acts (such as promises, requests, orders etc.), but only to describe them in a constative manner. For instance, given a performative utterance such as "Can you pass me the salt?", the role of the UNL is to represent "you pass the salt to me" and to indicate that this was a polite request<ref>This can be done by the use of the attributes @polite and @request.</ref>. The UNL representation itself will not be a request, nor will be bound to provoke the same (perlocutionary) effect caused by the original utterance.<br />
;Completeness<br />
:As a fully-explicit semantic system, the UNL is not expected to have ellipses or pro-forms, except when the referent is not present in the document (exophora). A sentence such as "The monkey took the banana and ate it" must be represented, in UNL, as "[The monkey]<sub>i</sub> took [the banana]<sub>j</sub> and [the monkey]<sub>i</sub> ate [the banana]<sub>j</sub>".<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
{{:Semantic network}}<br />
<br />
== UNL Specs ==<br />
The structure of the UNL is defined by the [[Specs|UNL Specs]]. The UNL Specs specify the structure of a UNL document; the syntax of a UNL graph; the syntax of Universal Words; the set of relations; the set of attributes; and all the information concerning UNL as a formalism:<br />
*[[Universal Words]]<br />
*[[Universal Attributes]]<br />
*[[Universal Relations]]<br />
*[[UNL sentence|UNL sentence structure]]<br />
*[[UNL document|UNL document structure]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* Martins, R. (ed). (2013). Lexical issues of UNL. Cambridge Scholar Publishing.<br />
* Uchida, H.; Zhu, M.; Della Senta, T. (1999). A gift for a millenium. Tokyo: IAS/UNU.<br />
* UNL. (1996). Universal Networking Language: an electronic language for communication, understanding and collaboration. Tokyo: UNL Center.<br />
* Cardeñosa, J.; Gelbukh, A.; Tovar, E. (Eds.) (2005). [http://www.cicling.org/2005/UNL-book/ Universal Networking Language: Advances in Theory and Applications]. 443 pp.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNL&diff=16751UNL2025-10-24T15:11:47Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Universal Networking Language''' (UNL) is an artificial language created to represent and process information across language barriers. <br />
<br />
== Mission ==<br />
Conceived within the scope of the [Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights (1996, Barcelona)|https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000104267], UNL was proposed as a technological response to the digital divide and to global language barriers, linguistic imperialism, and language prejudice, as well as to the asymmetry of information and accessibility issues that results from them. It sought to promote a more equitable exchange of knowledge across languages, fostering inclusion, mutual understanding, and respect for linguistic diversity.<br />
<br />
== History == <br />
<br />
The [[UNL Programme]] started in 1996, as an initiative of the [http://www.ias.unu.edu Institute of Advanced Studies] of the [http://www.unu.edu United Nations University] in Tokyo, Japan. In January 2001, the United Nations University set up an autonomous organization, the [http://www.undlfoundation.org UNDL Foundation], to be responsible for the development and management of the UNL Programme. The Foundation, a non-profit international organisation, has an independent identity from the United Nations University, although it has special links with the United Nations. It inherited from the UNU/IAS the mandate of implementing the UNL Programme. Its headquarters are based in Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
<br />
The UNL Programme has already crossed important milestones. The overall architecture of the UNL System has been developed with a set of basic software and tools necessary for its functioning. These are being tested and improved. A vast amount of linguistic resources from the various native languages already under development has been accumulated in the last few years. Moreover, the technical infrastructure for expanding these resources is already in place, thus facilitating the participation of many more languages in the UNL system from now on. A growing number of scientific papers and academic dissertations on the UNL are being published every year. <br />
<br />
The most visible accomplishment so far is the recognition by the Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT) of the innovative character and industrial applicability of the UNL, which was obtained in May 2002 through the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Acquiring the patent for the UNL is a completely novel achievement within the United Nations.<br />
<br />
== Commitments ==<br />
The main goal of the UNL Programme is to construct the UNL, an artificial language that can be used to process information across the language barriers. The major commitments of the UNL are the following:<br />
<br />
;I - The UNL must represent information<br />
:The UNL is first and foremost a knowledge representation language. The most important corollary of this first commitment is that UNL is not a meta-language, i.e., it is not intended to describe or represent natural languages; on the contrary, it is used to represent the information conveyed by natural languages. The goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said". Accordingly, the UNL provides an '''interpretation''' rather than a translation of a given utterance. The UNL version of an existing document is not bound to preserve the lexical and the syntactic choices of the original, but must represent, in a non-ambiguous format, one of its possible meanings, preferably the most conventional one.<br />
<br />
;II - The UNL must be a language for computers<br />
:The UNL is an artificial language shaped to represent knowledge in a machine-tractable format. Like other formal systems, it seeks to provide the infrastructure for computers to handle what is meant by natural languages. Differently from other auxiliary languages (such as Esperanto, Interlingua, Volapük, Ido and others), the UNL is not intended to be a human language. We do not expect people to speak UNL or to communicate in UNL. But we do expect computers to process UNL: to generate UNL out of natural language, and vice-versa, with and without human aid. We expect computers to be able to extract information from UNL documents, and to detect paraphrases, entailments, implicatures, presuppositions, inferences, contradictions and redundancies among a set of propositions represented in UNL. <br />
<br />
;III - The UNL must be self-sufficient<br />
:In the UNL approach, there are two basic movements: [[UNLization]] and [[NLization]]. UNLization is the process of representing the information conveyed by natural language into UNL; NLization, conversely, is the process of generating a natural language document out of UNL. In order to be fully "understandable" (and manageable) by machines, the UNL must be self-sufficient, i.e., should be as semantically complete and saturated as possible. The UNL representation must not depend on any implicit knowledge, and should explicitly codify all information. This means that the UNLization should be completely independent from the NLization, and vice-versa, i.e., the UNLization should not take into consideration which will be the target language or format of any future NLization; and the NLization should not need any information about the original source language or previous structure of any UNL document. <br />
<br />
;IV - The UNL must be general-purpose<br />
:At first glance, the UNL seems to be a pivot-language to which the source texts are converted before being translated into the target languages. It can, in fact, be used for such a purpose, but its primary objective is to serve as an infrastructure for handling knowledge. In addition to translation, the UNL is expected to be used in several other different tasks, such as text mining, multilingual document generation, summarization, text simplification, information retrieval and extraction, sentiment analysis etc. Indeed, in UNL-based systems there is no need for the source language to be different from the target language: an English text may be represented in UNL in order to be generated, once again, in English, as a summarized, a simplified, a localized or a simply rephrased version of the original. <br />
<br />
;V - The UNL must be independent from any particular natural language<br />
:The UNL is expected to be the language of the United Nations and, therefore, must not be circumscribed to any existing natural language in particular, under the risk of being rejected by the state members of the General Assembly.<br />
<br />
== Assumptions ==<br />
;1. Languages convey information<br />
:The UNL assumes that one of the most outstanding uses of natural languages is to convey '''information''', i.e., that natural languages can be used to represent what we know about the world. This "aboutness" of natural languages, i.e., its representational role, is the main object of the UNL, which is expected, not to do what natural languages do, but to represent what they represent.<br />
<br />
;2. Information can be represented by semantic networks<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural language can be formally and usefully represented by a '''semantic network'''. This idea is not new. Semantic networks have been used in knowledge representation at least since Charles S. Peirce, and as an interlingua for machine translation since the 1950's. In the UNL approach, this semantic network (or UNL graph) is made of three different types of discrete semantic entities: concepts, relations and attributes. Concepts are nodes in the network; relations are arcs linking nodes; and attributes are used to delimit the use of nodes. This three-layered representation model is the cornerstone of the UNL, and a distinctive feature over other semantic networks, which normally propose only two levels: edges and vertices. <br />
<br />
;3. Any information may be expressed in any language<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural languages is '''translatable''', i.e., that natural languages differ, not in their power to express information, but in the way they do that. The UNL also assumes that, in order to ensure this "translatability" of information, the semantic network must be independent of any natural language in particular (i.e., it must be "universal"<ref>The idea of "universality", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all" (as in "Coordinated '''Universal''' Time (UTC)", or in "'''universal''' adapter"), rather than "common to all" (as in "'''Universal''' Grammar"). See [[Universal]].</ref>). This is achieved by defining a standard (uniform) set of universally-accessible semantic entities, which are the elements of UNL: [[Universal Word]]s (or UW's), [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
<br />
== Properties ==<br />
;Non-Ambiguity<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is not expected to have any ambiguity, at any level. The sentence "The girls saw the boy with the telescope" must be represented, in UNL, in a way that there is no ambiguity concerning the meaning of "saw" (past tense of the verb "to see" x present tense of the verb "to saw" x noun "saw") or the dependency relations of "with the telescope" ("saw with the telescope" x "the boy with the telescope").<br />
;Non-Redundancy<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to have any redundancy. Expressions such as "free gift", "round circle" and "murder to death" are expected to be represented, in UNL, as "gift", "circle" and "murder", respectively. Likewise, sentences such as "Peter killed John", "Peter murdered John", "It's Peter who killed John" and "John was killed by Peter" are expected to be represented in UNL in the same way<ref>The differences between them can be represented by attributes such as @topic and @passive, but this is rather optional, because the goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said" or "how it was said".</ref>.<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is always literal, i.e., fully compositional. UNL expressions must derive their semantic value thoroughly from their components, which must be explicitly defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]]. Accordingly, the UNL does not allow for any figure of speech, such as metaphor and metonymy. Tropes must be represented, in UNL, by their intended meaning. A sentence such as "John devoured thousands of books", for instance, must be represented, in UNL, as "John read many books eagerly"<ref>The information that this content has been conveyed through figurative language can be indicated by the corresponding attributes (@metaphor, @hyperbole, etc.), but this is optional.</ref>. <br />
;Declarativeness<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to perform speech acts (such as promises, requests, orders etc.), but only to describe them in a constative manner. For instance, given a performative utterance such as "Can you pass me the salt?", the role of the UNL is to represent "you pass the salt to me" and to indicate that this was a polite request<ref>This can be done by the use of the attributes @polite and @request.</ref>. The UNL representation itself will not be a request, nor will be bound to provoke the same (perlocutionary) effect caused by the original utterance.<br />
;Completeness<br />
:As a fully-explicit semantic system, the UNL is not expected to have ellipses or pro-forms, except when the referent is not present in the document (exophora). A sentence such as "The monkey took the banana and ate it" must be represented, in UNL, as "[The monkey]<sub>i</sub> took [the banana]<sub>j</sub> and [the monkey]<sub>i</sub> ate [the banana]<sub>j</sub>".<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
{{:Semantic network}}<br />
<br />
== UNL Specs ==<br />
The structure of the UNL is defined by the [[Specs|UNL Specs]]. The UNL Specs specify the structure of a UNL document; the syntax of a UNL graph; the syntax of Universal Words; the set of relations; the set of attributes; and all the information concerning UNL as a formalism:<br />
*[[Universal Words]]<br />
*[[Universal Attributes]]<br />
*[[Universal Relations]]<br />
*[[UNL sentence|UNL sentence structure]]<br />
*[[UNL document|UNL document structure]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* Martins, R. (ed). (2013). Lexical issues of UNL. Cambridge Scholar Publishing.<br />
* Uchida, H.; Zhu, M.; Della Senta, T. (1999). A gift for a millenium. Tokyo: IAS/UNU.<br />
* UNL. (1996). Universal Networking Language: an electronic language for communication, understanding and collaboration. Tokyo: UNL Center.<br />
* Cardeñosa, J.; Gelbukh, A.; Tovar, E. (Eds.) (2005). [http://www.cicling.org/2005/UNL-book/ Universal Networking Language: Advances in Theory and Applications]. 443 pp.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNL&diff=16750UNL2025-10-24T00:46:01Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Universal Networking Language''' (UNL) is an artificial language created to represent and process information across language barriers. <br />
<br />
== Mission ==<br />
Conceived within the scope of language rights, UNL was proposed as a technological response to the digital divide and to global language barriers, linguistic imperialism, and language prejudice, as well as to the asymmetry of information and accessibility issues that results from them. It sought to promote a more equitable exchange of knowledge across languages, fostering inclusion, mutual understanding, and respect for linguistic diversity.<br />
<br />
== History == <br />
<br />
The [[UNL Programme]] started in 1996, as an initiative of the [http://www.ias.unu.edu Institute of Advanced Studies] of the [http://www.unu.edu United Nations University] in Tokyo, Japan. In January 2001, the United Nations University set up an autonomous organization, the [http://www.undlfoundation.org UNDL Foundation], to be responsible for the development and management of the UNL Programme. The Foundation, a non-profit international organisation, has an independent identity from the United Nations University, although it has special links with the United Nations. It inherited from the UNU/IAS the mandate of implementing the UNL Programme. Its headquarters are based in Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
<br />
The UNL Programme has already crossed important milestones. The overall architecture of the UNL System has been developed with a set of basic software and tools necessary for its functioning. These are being tested and improved. A vast amount of linguistic resources from the various native languages already under development has been accumulated in the last few years. Moreover, the technical infrastructure for expanding these resources is already in place, thus facilitating the participation of many more languages in the UNL system from now on. A growing number of scientific papers and academic dissertations on the UNL are being published every year. <br />
<br />
The most visible accomplishment so far is the recognition by the Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT) of the innovative character and industrial applicability of the UNL, which was obtained in May 2002 through the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Acquiring the patent for the UNL is a completely novel achievement within the United Nations.<br />
<br />
== Commitments ==<br />
The main goal of the UNL Programme is to construct the UNL, an artificial language that can be used to process information across the language barriers. The major commitments of the UNL are the following:<br />
<br />
;I - The UNL must represent information<br />
:The UNL is first and foremost a knowledge representation language. The most important corollary of this first commitment is that UNL is not a meta-language, i.e., it is not intended to describe or represent natural languages; on the contrary, it is used to represent the information conveyed by natural languages. The goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said". Accordingly, the UNL provides an '''interpretation''' rather than a translation of a given utterance. The UNL version of an existing document is not bound to preserve the lexical and the syntactic choices of the original, but must represent, in a non-ambiguous format, one of its possible meanings, preferably the most conventional one.<br />
<br />
;II - The UNL must be a language for computers<br />
:The UNL is an artificial language shaped to represent knowledge in a machine-tractable format. Like other formal systems, it seeks to provide the infrastructure for computers to handle what is meant by natural languages. Differently from other auxiliary languages (such as Esperanto, Interlingua, Volapük, Ido and others), the UNL is not intended to be a human language. We do not expect people to speak UNL or to communicate in UNL. But we do expect computers to process UNL: to generate UNL out of natural language, and vice-versa, with and without human aid. We expect computers to be able to extract information from UNL documents, and to detect paraphrases, entailments, implicatures, presuppositions, inferences, contradictions and redundancies among a set of propositions represented in UNL. <br />
<br />
;III - The UNL must be self-sufficient<br />
:In the UNL approach, there are two basic movements: [[UNLization]] and [[NLization]]. UNLization is the process of representing the information conveyed by natural language into UNL; NLization, conversely, is the process of generating a natural language document out of UNL. In order to be fully "understandable" (and manageable) by machines, the UNL must be self-sufficient, i.e., should be as semantically complete and saturated as possible. The UNL representation must not depend on any implicit knowledge, and should explicitly codify all information. This means that the UNLization should be completely independent from the NLization, and vice-versa, i.e., the UNLization should not take into consideration which will be the target language or format of any future NLization; and the NLization should not need any information about the original source language or previous structure of any UNL document. <br />
<br />
;IV - The UNL must be general-purpose<br />
:At first glance, the UNL seems to be a pivot-language to which the source texts are converted before being translated into the target languages. It can, in fact, be used for such a purpose, but its primary objective is to serve as an infrastructure for handling knowledge. In addition to translation, the UNL is expected to be used in several other different tasks, such as text mining, multilingual document generation, summarization, text simplification, information retrieval and extraction, sentiment analysis etc. Indeed, in UNL-based systems there is no need for the source language to be different from the target language: an English text may be represented in UNL in order to be generated, once again, in English, as a summarized, a simplified, a localized or a simply rephrased version of the original. <br />
<br />
;V - The UNL must be independent from any particular natural language<br />
:The UNL is expected to be the language of the United Nations and, therefore, must not be circumscribed to any existing natural language in particular, under the risk of being rejected by the state members of the General Assembly.<br />
<br />
== Assumptions ==<br />
;1. Languages convey information<br />
:The UNL assumes that one of the most outstanding uses of natural languages is to convey '''information''', i.e., that natural languages can be used to represent what we know about the world. This "aboutness" of natural languages, i.e., its representational role, is the main object of the UNL, which is expected, not to do what natural languages do, but to represent what they represent.<br />
<br />
;2. Information can be represented by semantic networks<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural language can be formally and usefully represented by a '''semantic network'''. This idea is not new. Semantic networks have been used in knowledge representation at least since Charles S. Peirce, and as an interlingua for machine translation since the 1950's. In the UNL approach, this semantic network (or UNL graph) is made of three different types of discrete semantic entities: concepts, relations and attributes. Concepts are nodes in the network; relations are arcs linking nodes; and attributes are used to delimit the use of nodes. This three-layered representation model is the cornerstone of the UNL, and a distinctive feature over other semantic networks, which normally propose only two levels: edges and vertices. <br />
<br />
;3. Any information may be expressed in any language<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural languages is '''translatable''', i.e., that natural languages differ, not in their power to express information, but in the way they do that. The UNL also assumes that, in order to ensure this "translatability" of information, the semantic network must be independent of any natural language in particular (i.e., it must be "universal"<ref>The idea of "universality", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all" (as in "Coordinated '''Universal''' Time (UTC)", or in "'''universal''' adapter"), rather than "common to all" (as in "'''Universal''' Grammar"). See [[Universal]].</ref>). This is achieved by defining a standard (uniform) set of universally-accessible semantic entities, which are the elements of UNL: [[Universal Word]]s (or UW's), [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
<br />
== Properties ==<br />
;Non-Ambiguity<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is not expected to have any ambiguity, at any level. The sentence "The girls saw the boy with the telescope" must be represented, in UNL, in a way that there is no ambiguity concerning the meaning of "saw" (past tense of the verb "to see" x present tense of the verb "to saw" x noun "saw") or the dependency relations of "with the telescope" ("saw with the telescope" x "the boy with the telescope").<br />
;Non-Redundancy<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to have any redundancy. Expressions such as "free gift", "round circle" and "murder to death" are expected to be represented, in UNL, as "gift", "circle" and "murder", respectively. Likewise, sentences such as "Peter killed John", "Peter murdered John", "It's Peter who killed John" and "John was killed by Peter" are expected to be represented in UNL in the same way<ref>The differences between them can be represented by attributes such as @topic and @passive, but this is rather optional, because the goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said" or "how it was said".</ref>.<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is always literal, i.e., fully compositional. UNL expressions must derive their semantic value thoroughly from their components, which must be explicitly defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]]. Accordingly, the UNL does not allow for any figure of speech, such as metaphor and metonymy. Tropes must be represented, in UNL, by their intended meaning. A sentence such as "John devoured thousands of books", for instance, must be represented, in UNL, as "John read many books eagerly"<ref>The information that this content has been conveyed through figurative language can be indicated by the corresponding attributes (@metaphor, @hyperbole, etc.), but this is optional.</ref>. <br />
;Declarativeness<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to perform speech acts (such as promises, requests, orders etc.), but only to describe them in a constative manner. For instance, given a performative utterance such as "Can you pass me the salt?", the role of the UNL is to represent "you pass the salt to me" and to indicate that this was a polite request<ref>This can be done by the use of the attributes @polite and @request.</ref>. The UNL representation itself will not be a request, nor will be bound to provoke the same (perlocutionary) effect caused by the original utterance.<br />
;Completeness<br />
:As a fully-explicit semantic system, the UNL is not expected to have ellipses or pro-forms, except when the referent is not present in the document (exophora). A sentence such as "The monkey took the banana and ate it" must be represented, in UNL, as "[The monkey]<sub>i</sub> took [the banana]<sub>j</sub> and [the monkey]<sub>i</sub> ate [the banana]<sub>j</sub>".<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
{{:Semantic network}}<br />
<br />
== UNL Specs ==<br />
The structure of the UNL is defined by the [[Specs|UNL Specs]]. The UNL Specs specify the structure of a UNL document; the syntax of a UNL graph; the syntax of Universal Words; the set of relations; the set of attributes; and all the information concerning UNL as a formalism:<br />
*[[Universal Words]]<br />
*[[Universal Attributes]]<br />
*[[Universal Relations]]<br />
*[[UNL sentence|UNL sentence structure]]<br />
*[[UNL document|UNL document structure]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* Martins, R. (ed). (2013). Lexical issues of UNL. Cambridge Scholar Publishing.<br />
* Uchida, H.; Zhu, M.; Della Senta, T. (1999). A gift for a millenium. Tokyo: IAS/UNU.<br />
* UNL. (1996). Universal Networking Language: an electronic language for communication, understanding and collaboration. Tokyo: UNL Center.<br />
* Cardeñosa, J.; Gelbukh, A.; Tovar, E. (Eds.) (2005). [http://www.cicling.org/2005/UNL-book/ Universal Networking Language: Advances in Theory and Applications]. 443 pp.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Introduction_to_UNL&diff=16749Introduction to UNL2025-10-23T00:49:58Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Redirected page to UNL</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[UNL]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Introduction_to_UNL&diff=16748Introduction to UNL2025-10-23T00:48:22Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Replaced content with "REDIRECT UNL"</p>
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<div>REDIRECT [[UNL]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=NADIA&diff=16747NADIA2025-10-21T20:53:05Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Reverted edit by imported>Vikeshsharma1 (talk) to last revision by imported>Martins</p>
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<div>The project NADIA ('''NA'''tural language '''DI'''ctionary for UNL-NL m'''A'''ppings is devoted to the creation of NL dictionaries for entries derived from [[GD|generation dictionaries]].<br />
<br />
== Goal ==<br />
The project NADIA has two main goals:<br />
#To review UNL-NL mappings provided in generation dictionary projects (such as [[MIR]]).<br />
#To provide morphological information (such as gender, number, inflectional paradigm, etc) and syntactic information (transitivity, subcategorization frame, etc) to natural language entries derived from generation dictionaries<br />
<br />
== Repository ==<br />
NADIA is language dependent. Every language has its own set of entries to be addressed. The list of entries is derived from the corresponding MIR projects, as indicated below:<br />
<br />
{|border="1" align="center" cellpadding="2"<br />
!Subproject<br />
!Source<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|NADIA-A1<br />
|align="center"|MIR-A1<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|NADIA-A2<br />
|align="center"|MIR-A2<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|NADIA-B1<br />
|align="center"|MIR-B1<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|NADIA-B2<br />
|align="center"|MIR-B2<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|NADIA-C1<br />
|align="center"|MIR-C1<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|NADIA-C2<br />
|align="center"|MIR-C2<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Requisites ==<br />
NADIA is open to all languages, except to English, for which it is expected to be already finished. As a derivative project, NADIA depends on the results of MIR, and it is open only when the language reaches at least 90% of the corresponding level in MIR<ref>For instance, NADIA-A1 for French is open only after French achieves 90% in MIR-A1.</ref>:<br />
*[[MIR-A1]] is required for NADIA-A1;<br />
*[[MIR-A2]] is required for NADIA-A2;<br />
*[[MIR-B1]] is required for NADIA-B1;<br />
*[[MIR-B2]] is required for NADIA-B2;<br />
*[[MIR-C1]] is required for NADIA-C1;<br />
*[[MIR-C2]] is required for NADIA-C2.<br />
<br />
== Instructions ==<br />
In NADIA, users are expected to provide the features for natural language lemmas that were linked to UW's in the project MIR, according to the following instructions:<br />
#Entries must be treated only if lexical units. If the lemma deriving from MIR is not a lexical unit, users are expected to report the problem and not to provide any information.<br />
#Entries must be treated only if lemmas. If the entry deriving from MIR is not a lemma, users are expected to report the problem and not to provide any information.<br />
#Entries must be corrected, in case of spelling problems. If the entry deriving from MIR has spelling problems, users are expected to correct it and to treat it normally.<br />
#Entries must be addressed thoroughly. Users are expected to provide all the morphological, syntactic and semantic information concerning each entry.<br />
#Entries must be split, in case they have different morphosyntactic behavior (gender, number, inflectional paradigm, subcategorization frame).<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=BRUNO&diff=16746BRUNO2025-10-21T20:52:22Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Reverted edit by imported>Buy Xanax online (talk) to last revision by imported>Martins</p>
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<div>The project BRUNO ('''B'''asic '''R'''esources for '''UN'''Lizati'''O'''n) is devoted to the creation of NL-UNL (analysis) dictionaries.<br />
<br />
== Goal ==<br />
The project BRUNO has two main goals:<br />
#To provide several word-to-concept monolingual databases (i.e., encoding or reader's dictionaries). These dictionaries are expected to be used in [[UNLization]], i.e., in generating UNL graphs out of natural language documents, especially through [[IAN]].<br />
#To find concepts that are not enclosed in the WordNet3.0 and should be incorporated to the [[UNL Dictionary]].<br />
<br />
== Repository ==<br />
BRUNO is language dependent. Every language has its own set of entries to be addressed. The repository is divided into 6 different subprojects according to the frequency of use of the lemmas. <br />
*BRUNO-A1 contains the list of the 2,000 most frequent lemmas of the language (including articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, etc.);<br />
*BRUNO-A2 contains the next 3,000 most frequent lemmas of the language;<br />
*BRUNO-B1 contains the next 5,000 most frequent lemmas of the language;<br />
And so on.<br />
<br />
{|border="1" align="center" cellpadding="2"<br />
!Repository<br />
!# of lemmas <br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|BRUNO-A1<br />
|align="center"|2,000<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|BRUNO-A2<br />
|align="center"|3,000<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|BRUNO-B1<br />
|align="center"|5,000<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|BRUNO-B2<br />
|align="center"|5,000<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|BRUNO-C1<br />
|align="center"|10,000<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|BRUNO-C2<br />
|align="center"|10,000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Requisites ==<br />
The project BRUNO is open to all languages complying with the following requisites:<br />
*[[MIR-A1]] and [[NADIA-A1]] are required for BRUNO-A1;<br />
*[[MIR-A2]] and [[NADIA-A2]] are required for BRUNO-A2;<br />
*[[MIR-B1]] and [[NADIA-B1]] are required for BRUNO-B1;<br />
*[[MIR-B2]] and [[NADIA-B2]] are required for BRUNO-B2;<br />
*[[MIR-C1]] and [[NADIA-C1]] are required for BRUNO-C1;<br />
*[[MIR-C2]] and [[NADIA-C2]] are required for BRUNO-C2;<br />
*In all cases, the language must contain a reasonable amount of [[inflectional paradigms]] and [[subcategorization frames]] already registered in the [[UNLarium]].<br />
<br />
== Preparing the list of entries ==<br />
#List of entries<br />
#:Participants are expected to provide a list of the entries according to the following criteria:<br />
#:*The list of entries must include the most frequent lemmas of the language, including articles, prepositions, conjunctions, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.<br />
#:*The list of entries can be extracted from prestigious monolingual dictionaries or from a corpus considered to be representative of the standard written language<ref>This corpus can be either an existing reputable corpus or a new corpus compiled according to the criteria defined at [[NC]].</ref>.<br />
#:*The list of entries must be ordered according to the frequency of occurrence (the most frequent entries must come first)<ref>The frequency of use is not often informed by ordinary dictionaries but may be inferred from the several distributions of the same dictionary: basic, intermediate or advanced, for instance.</ref>.<br />
#:*The list of entries must be lemmatized<ref>There should be as many lemmas as different '''morphological behavior''' (part-of-speech, gender, number, inflections, etc.). The word "book", in English, should correspond to two lemmas: "book" as a noun, and "book" as a verb. Note that the many different meanings of "book" as a noun do not lead to different lemmas, because all of them have the same morphological behavior, i.e., are singular and make plural in -s. On the other hand, the noun "livre", in French, should correspond to two lemmas: "livre" as a noun masculine (= "book"), and "livre" as a noun feminine (= "pound"). This difference is not derived from the different meanings, but from the different morphological behavior: one is masculine and the other is feminine.</ref><br />
#:*Entries must be provided in a plain text file (.txt) with UTF-8 encoding, with one entry per line, along with the corresponding value of the lexical category [[LEX]], in the following format:<br />
#::lemma:LEX<ref>See an example at [http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/bruno/hu_a1.txt]</ref><br />
#Verification<br />
#:The list of entries is verified by a language manager or, in case there is no language manager for the target language, by the Language Resources Manager of the UNDL Foundation. If approved, it is uploaded to the UNLarium, and the corresponding BRUNO project is open.<br />
#Dictionary<br />
#:Entries become available, in the UNLarium, for all the registered users of a given language, in case of open projects, or for the approved candidates, in case of closed projects. Users are expected to provide all the morphological, syntactic and semantic information for each entry<br />
<br />
== Instructions ==<br />
;Lexical Category<br />
:Whenever the lexical category for a given lemma is provided, check whether it is correct. If it is not correct, decline the entry and report the problem by clicking over the yellow triangle at the right of the main entry. If the lexical category is not provided, select the most likely category. Do not worry about homonyms: provide one single category for a given main entry.<br />
;Lemma<br />
:Do not change the lemma. If it is not correct (i.e., if it is misspelled or cannot be considered to be a lexical unit), decline the entry and report the problem by clicking over the yellow triangle at the right of the main entry.<br />
;Provide as many UW's as necessary to each lemma, but do not include very rare or unusual cases. And check the order: the most likely senses must appear first.<br />
;Base Form<br />
:You have to worry about the base form only in case of multiword expressions 1) whose inflections cannot be formed by simple affixation or 2) which are discontinuous. In these cases, provide the corresponding composition rules.<br />
;Inflection<br />
:Select AND TEST the inflectional paradigm that generates the inflections of the base form. Any errors here will be propagated to the dictionary, so be careful. And pay attention to the cases below:<br />
:*LOCALIZED IRREGULARITY: if the word is mostly regular and its irregularity is localized in some few and specific rules (more than one possible plural for nouns, or defective verbs that are not used in a given person, for instance, but follow the general rules for all the others), assign the word to the corresponding paradigm and list, in the box "inflectional rules", its irregularities;<br />
:*NON-EXISTING PARADIGM: if the word is regular or semi-regular (in the sense that there are several other words in the same case), and cannot be associated to any existing paradigm, press the button REQUEST A NEW PARADIGM and provide the corresponding details;<br />
:*IRREGULAR WORDS: if the word is irregular (i.e., it has a quite unusual and specific morphological behavior), choose the option IRREGULAR and provide the corresponding inflectional rules.<br />
;Subcategorization<br />
:Subcategorization is only required when the word REQUIRES a complement or a specifier (indirect transitive verbs that select an specific preposition, for instance). In this case, you have to inform the corresponding subcategorization frame. If the subcategorization frame is not available, press the button REQUEST A NEW SUBCATEGORIZATION FRAME and provide the corresponding details.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=XII_UNL_School&diff=16745XII UNL School2025-10-20T21:00:35Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Open Class Word List */</p>
<hr />
<div>The UNDL Foundation invites applications for the XII UNL School, to take place in Geneva, Switzerland, from July 1st to 5th, 2013. This is an intermediate-level workshop dedicated to the improvement of grammatical resources already existing in the UNL framework. The UNDL Foundation will pay the travel and accommodation expenses for the selected candidates not living in Geneva.<br />
<br />
== IMPORTANT DATES ==<br />
<br />
*<strike>12/05/2013: Deadline for the applications</strike><br />
*<strike>20/05/2013: Notification of accepted candidates</strike><br />
*<strike>1-5/07/2013: XII UNL School</strike><br />
*30/09/2012: Deadline for the post-workshop tasks<br />
<br />
== GOALS ==<br />
#To compile the corpus NC-A1<br />
#To prepare the basic modules for the UNLization of the corpus NC-A1<br />
#To prepare the basic modules for the NLization of the corpus NC-A1<br />
<br />
== PROGRAM ==<br />
*1/07/2013: Normalization Grammar<br />
*2/07/2013: Closed-Class Dictionary<br />
*3/07/2013: Open-Class Word List<br />
*4/07/2013: NC-A1<br />
*5/07/2013: Evaluation and discussion<br />
<br />
== MATERIAL ==<br />
*1/07/2013<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/day1.pdf Presentation]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/exercise1.txt Exercise #1] (text to be normalized)<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/normalization_eng.txt Exercise #2] (normalization grammar for English)<br />
*2/07/2013<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/day2.pdf Presentation]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/eng_dic.txt Exercise #3] (English Closed-Class Dictionary)<br />
*3/07/2013<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/day3.pdf Presentation]<br />
**[[#WORD FORMS| Exercise #4]] (Open-Class Word List)<br />
*4/07/2013<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/day4.pdf Presentation]<br />
*5/07/2013<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/day5.pdf Presentation]<br />
<br />
== PARTICIPANTS ==<br />
*Kim Sokphyrum (Khmer)<br />
*Marwa Saber (Arabic)<br />
*Muhammad Zulhelmy Bin Mohd Rosman (Malay)<br />
*Ofelia Hovhannisyan (Armenian)<br />
*Parameswarappa S (Kannada)<br />
*Parteek Kumar (Panjabi)<br />
*Ronaldo Martins (UNL)<br />
*Sameh Alansary (Arabic)<br />
*Serhii Prots (Ukrainian)<br />
*Suos Samak (Khmer)<br />
*Teng Wei Min (Chinese)<br />
*Yordanka Stancheva (Bulgarian)<br />
<br />
== VENUE ==<br />
UNDL Foundation Office, Geneva<br />
<br />
== POST-WORKSHOP TASKS ==<br />
Deadline = 30/09/2013<br />
*Open-Class Word List (3,000 word forms)<br />
*Corpus NC-A1<br />
**Original corpus: 5-10 original articles from the Wikipedia about culture-specific subjects (minimum of 5,000 words), in separate files, in plain text format with UTF-8 encoding<br />
**List of at least 1,000 noun phrases appearing in the corpus with the following characteristics:<br />
***the length of the NP must be equal or greater than 2 words (one-word NP's must be excluded): <strike>Geneva</strike><br />
***NP's must not contain foreign words: <strike>the city of Genève</strike> (note that "the city of Geneva" is OK)<br />
***NP's must be continuous (there cannot be any extra-content, e.g., parentheses, inside the NP): <strike>the second most populous city in Switzerland (after Zurich)</strike> (note that the NP will be "the second most populous city in Switzerland")<br />
***NP's must not contain verbs, even when used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs: <strike>French-'''speaking''' part of Switzerland</strike>, <strike>numerous international organizations, '''including''' the headquarters of many of the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross</strike> (in the latter case, there will be 2 NP's: "numerous international organizations" and "the headquarters... Red Cross")<br />
***NP's must be original (no change should be made to the original text from the Wikipedia)<br />
***NP's must ignore nesting (only the longest NP must be considered): "the headquarters of many of the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross" must be treated as a single NP (the inner NP's, such as "the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross" must not be extracted from the longer NP)<br />
***NP's must be unique (repetitions must be ignored)<br />
***NP's must be provided one per line in a plain text file, with UTF-8 encoding.<br />
The completion of the post-workshop tasks is not mandatory but any intermediate-level workshop will only accept candidates having finished all A1 activities described in [[FoR-UNL]].<br />
<br />
== FOLLOW-UP ==<br />
The following projects will be open upon the accomplishment of the post-workshop tasks<br />
*BRUNO-A1 (open only for languages where number of subcategorization frames (all languages) > 15 and number of paradigms (inflectional languages) > 15): 2,000 entries (around 4,000 UNLdots)<br />
*NC-A1: 1,000 entries (3,000 UNLdots)<br />
<br />
== ADDITIONAL MATERIAL ==<br />
=== Open Class Word List ===<br />
Extracted from the most frequent words in Wikipedia<br />
<br />
{|table border=1 cellpadding=5<br />
!Language<br />
!File<br />
|-<br />
|Arabic<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2013/ar_words.xls ar_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Armenian<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2013/hy_words.xls hy_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Bulgarian<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2013/bg_words.xls bg_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Chinese<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2013/zh_words.xls zh_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Kannada<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2013/kn_words.xls kn_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Khmer<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2013/km_words.xls km_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Malay<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/ms_words.xls ms_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Punjabi<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/pa_words.xls pa_words.xls]<br />
|-<br />
|Ukrainian<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/school/geneva2013/uk_words.xls uk_words.xls]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== NP Examples ===<br />
{|table border=1 cellpadding=5<br />
!width="50%"|original text<br />
!width="50%"|NP<br />
|-<br />
|Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland (after Zurich) and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhone exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva. The municipality (ville de Genève) has a population (as of March 2013) of 194,245, and the canton (République et Canton de Genève, which includes the city) has 472,530 residents. In 2007, the urban area, or agglomération franco-valdo-genevoise (Great Geneva or Grand Genève in French) had 1,240,000 inhabitants in 189 municipalities in both Switzerland and France.<br />
|<strike>Geneva</strike> (length = 1)<br /><br />
the second most populous city in Switzerland<br /><br />
<strike>Zurich</strike> (length = 1)<br /><br />
the most populous city of Romandy<br /><br />
<strike>the French-speaking part of Switzerland</strike> (verb)<br /><br />
<strike>Switzerland</strike> (length = 1)<br /><br />
the Rhone<br /><br />
Lake Geneva<br /><br />
the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva<br /><br />
The municipality<br /><br />
<strike>ville de Genève</strike> (foreign language)<br /><br />
a population<br /><br />
the canton<br /><br />
<strike>République et Canton de Genève</strike> (foreign language)<br /><br />
the city<br /><br />
472,530 residents<br /><br />
the urban area<br /><br />
<strike>agglomération franco-valdo-genevoise</strike> (foreign language)<br /><br />
<strike>Great Geneva or Grand Genève in French</strike> (foreign language)<br /><br />
1,240,000 inhabitants in 189 municipalities in both Switzerland and France<br /><br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== SSS Examples ===<br />
{|table border=1 cellpadding=5<br />
!sentence<br />
!SSS<br />
|-<br />
|book<br />
|NH(book)<br />
|-<br />
|the book<br />
|NS(book;the)<br />
|-<br />
|beautiful book<br />
|NA(book;beautiful)<br />
|-<br />
|book of John<br />
|NA(book;:01)<br/>PC:01(of;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the book of John<br />
|NS(book;the)<br/>NA(book;:01)<br/>PC:01(of;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the beautiful book of John<br />
|NS(book;the)<br/>NA(book;beautiful)<br/>NA(book;:01)<br/>PC:01(of;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the book of Math of John<br />
|NS(book;the)<br/>NA(book;:01)<br/>PC:01(of;Math)<br/>NA(book;:02)<br />PC:02(of;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the book about the construction of Babel<br />
|NS(book;the)<br/>NA(book;:01)<br/>PC:01(about;:02)<br/>NS:02(construction;the)<br/>NA:02(construction;:03)<br/>PC:03(of;Babel)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== UNL Simplified Examples ===<br />
{|table border=1 cellpadding=5<br />
!sentence<br />
!UNL<br />
|-<br />
|book<br />
|book<br />
|-<br />
|the book<br />
|book.@def<br />
|-<br />
|beautiful book<br />
|mod(book;beautiful)<br />
|-<br />
|book of John<br />
|pos(book;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the book of John<br />
|pos(book.@def;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the beautiful book of John<br />
|mod(book.@def;beautiful)<br />pos(book.@def;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the book of Math of John<br />
|cnt(book.@def;Math)<br />pos(book.@def;John)<br />
|-<br />
|the book about the construction of Babel<br />
|cnt(book.@def;:01)<br />obj(construction.@def;Babel)<br />
|}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=VIII_UNL_School&diff=16744VIII UNL School2025-10-20T20:56:04Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* English examples and templates */</p>
<hr />
<div>The VIII UNL School, formerly UNL Grammar Workshop, was held in Geneva, Switzerland, from Feb 6-10, 2012.<br />
== Languages ==<br />
*Armenian<br />
*Bulgarian<br />
*Estonian<br />
*German<br />
*Greek<br />
*Polish<br />
*Portuguese<br />
*Romanian<br />
*Russian<br />
*Swedish<br />
<br />
== Goals ==<br />
*To build the basic modules of a NL-UNL (analysis) grammar<br />
*To build the basic modules of a UNL-UNL (generation) grammar<br />
<br />
== Corpus ==<br />
*[[Corpus500]]<br />
<br />
== Deliverables ==<br />
;DEADLINE: 01 SEP 2012<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*The manual translated version of the 500 sentences of the reference corpus (corpus_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis dictionary used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis grammar used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis disambiguation grammar, if any, used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The UNL output for those 500 sentences generated from the dictionary and grammars above (ana_out_LID.txt)<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*The generation dictionary used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation grammar, including inflectional paradigms, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation disambiguation grammar, if any, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The natural language output generated from the dictionary and grammars above (gen_out_LID.txt)<br />
:'''LID''' is to be replaced by the ISO639-2 two-character code of the language (en = English, el = Greek, etc.). Accordingly, the Greek corpus is to be provided as corpus_el.txt; the Greek analysis dictionary, as ana_dic_el.txt; and so on. All the files must be shared with "martins" in EUGENE and IAN.<br />
<br />
== Presentations ==<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" align=center<br />
!Title<br />
!pdf<br />
|-<br />
|Corpus<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Corpus.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|NL-UNL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary1.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|UNL-NL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary2.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|Grammar<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Grammar.pdf pdf]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== English examples and templates ==<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*Dictionaries<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic_eng.txt English analysis dictionary (for the reference corpus)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic.txt Default dictionary (punctuation and regular expressions)]<br />
*Grammars<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.pdf English analysis grammar (simplified)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.txt English analysis grammar (full)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra.txt Default analysis grammar]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dis_eng.txt English disambiguation grammar]<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*English generation dictionary (to be provided soon)<br />
*English generation grammar (to be provided soon)<br />
*English disambiguation grammar (for generation) (to be provided soon)<br />
<br />
== Participants ==<br />
*Carolin ARNOLD (German)<br />
*Ewa CZAJKOWSKA (Polish)<br />
*Grega MILHARCIC (Slovenian)<br />
*Luisa GOUVEIA (Portuguese)<br />
*Martin LUTS (Estonian)<br />
*Mihaela ILIOAIA (Romanian)<br />
*Ofelia HOVHANNISYAN (Armenian)<br />
*Olga VARTZIOTI (Greek) <br />
*Polina LENKOVA (Russian) <br />
*Ronaldo MARTINS (UNL)<br />
*Sameh ALANSARY (Arabic)<br />
*Sara STYMNE (Swedish)<br />
*Yordanka STANCHEVA (Bulgarian)<br />
<br />
== Program ==<br />
;Feb 06th, 2012 - Monday<br />
:09:00-10:00 Introduction<br />
:10:00-12:00 I – Corpus<br />
:14:00-17:00 II – UNL-NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 07th, 2012 - Tuesday <br />
:09:00-12:00 III – Morphology (inflectional paradigms)<br />
:14:00-17:00 IV – NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 08th, 2012- Wednesday<br />
:09:00-12:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 09th, 2012 - Thursday<br />
:09:00-12:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 10th, 2012 - Friday<br />
:09:00-12:00 Evaluation<br />
:14:00-17:00 Discussion</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=VIII_UNL_School&diff=16743VIII UNL School2025-10-20T20:55:47Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* English examples and templates */</p>
<hr />
<div>The VIII UNL School, formerly UNL Grammar Workshop, was held in Geneva, Switzerland, from Feb 6-10, 2012.<br />
== Languages ==<br />
*Armenian<br />
*Bulgarian<br />
*Estonian<br />
*German<br />
*Greek<br />
*Polish<br />
*Portuguese<br />
*Romanian<br />
*Russian<br />
*Swedish<br />
<br />
== Goals ==<br />
*To build the basic modules of a NL-UNL (analysis) grammar<br />
*To build the basic modules of a UNL-UNL (generation) grammar<br />
<br />
== Corpus ==<br />
*[[Corpus500]]<br />
<br />
== Deliverables ==<br />
;DEADLINE: 01 SEP 2012<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*The manual translated version of the 500 sentences of the reference corpus (corpus_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis dictionary used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis grammar used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis disambiguation grammar, if any, used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The UNL output for those 500 sentences generated from the dictionary and grammars above (ana_out_LID.txt)<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*The generation dictionary used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation grammar, including inflectional paradigms, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation disambiguation grammar, if any, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The natural language output generated from the dictionary and grammars above (gen_out_LID.txt)<br />
:'''LID''' is to be replaced by the ISO639-2 two-character code of the language (en = English, el = Greek, etc.). Accordingly, the Greek corpus is to be provided as corpus_el.txt; the Greek analysis dictionary, as ana_dic_el.txt; and so on. All the files must be shared with "martins" in EUGENE and IAN.<br />
<br />
== Presentations ==<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" align=center<br />
!Title<br />
!pdf<br />
|-<br />
|Corpus<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Corpus.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|NL-UNL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary1.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|UNL-NL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary2.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|Grammar<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Grammar.pdf pdf]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== English examples and templates ==<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*Dictionaries<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br1/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic_eng.txt English analysis dictionary (for the reference corpus)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic.txt Default dictionary (punctuation and regular expressions)]<br />
*Grammars<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.pdf English analysis grammar (simplified)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.txt English analysis grammar (full)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra.txt Default analysis grammar]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dis_eng.txt English disambiguation grammar]<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*English generation dictionary (to be provided soon)<br />
*English generation grammar (to be provided soon)<br />
*English disambiguation grammar (for generation) (to be provided soon)<br />
<br />
== Participants ==<br />
*Carolin ARNOLD (German)<br />
*Ewa CZAJKOWSKA (Polish)<br />
*Grega MILHARCIC (Slovenian)<br />
*Luisa GOUVEIA (Portuguese)<br />
*Martin LUTS (Estonian)<br />
*Mihaela ILIOAIA (Romanian)<br />
*Ofelia HOVHANNISYAN (Armenian)<br />
*Olga VARTZIOTI (Greek) <br />
*Polina LENKOVA (Russian) <br />
*Ronaldo MARTINS (UNL)<br />
*Sameh ALANSARY (Arabic)<br />
*Sara STYMNE (Swedish)<br />
*Yordanka STANCHEVA (Bulgarian)<br />
<br />
== Program ==<br />
;Feb 06th, 2012 - Monday<br />
:09:00-10:00 Introduction<br />
:10:00-12:00 I – Corpus<br />
:14:00-17:00 II – UNL-NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 07th, 2012 - Tuesday <br />
:09:00-12:00 III – Morphology (inflectional paradigms)<br />
:14:00-17:00 IV – NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 08th, 2012- Wednesday<br />
:09:00-12:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 09th, 2012 - Thursday<br />
:09:00-12:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 10th, 2012 - Friday<br />
:09:00-12:00 Evaluation<br />
:14:00-17:00 Discussion</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=VIII_UNL_School&diff=16742VIII UNL School2025-10-20T20:41:36Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Presentations */</p>
<hr />
<div>The VIII UNL School, formerly UNL Grammar Workshop, was held in Geneva, Switzerland, from Feb 6-10, 2012.<br />
== Languages ==<br />
*Armenian<br />
*Bulgarian<br />
*Estonian<br />
*German<br />
*Greek<br />
*Polish<br />
*Portuguese<br />
*Romanian<br />
*Russian<br />
*Swedish<br />
<br />
== Goals ==<br />
*To build the basic modules of a NL-UNL (analysis) grammar<br />
*To build the basic modules of a UNL-UNL (generation) grammar<br />
<br />
== Corpus ==<br />
*[[Corpus500]]<br />
<br />
== Deliverables ==<br />
;DEADLINE: 01 SEP 2012<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*The manual translated version of the 500 sentences of the reference corpus (corpus_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis dictionary used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis grammar used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis disambiguation grammar, if any, used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The UNL output for those 500 sentences generated from the dictionary and grammars above (ana_out_LID.txt)<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*The generation dictionary used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation grammar, including inflectional paradigms, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation disambiguation grammar, if any, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The natural language output generated from the dictionary and grammars above (gen_out_LID.txt)<br />
:'''LID''' is to be replaced by the ISO639-2 two-character code of the language (en = English, el = Greek, etc.). Accordingly, the Greek corpus is to be provided as corpus_el.txt; the Greek analysis dictionary, as ana_dic_el.txt; and so on. All the files must be shared with "martins" in EUGENE and IAN.<br />
<br />
== Presentations ==<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" align=center<br />
!Title<br />
!pdf<br />
|-<br />
|Corpus<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Corpus.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|NL-UNL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary1.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|UNL-NL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary2.pdf pdf]<br />
|-<br />
|Grammar<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Grammar.pdf pdf]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== English examples and templates ==<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*Dictionaries<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic_eng.txt English analysis dictionary (for the reference corpus)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic.txt Default dictionary (punctuation and regular expressions)]<br />
*Grammars<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.pdf English analysis grammar (simplified)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.txt English analysis grammar (full)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra.txt Default analysis grammar]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dis_eng.txt English disambiguation grammar]<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*English generation dictionary (to be provided soon)<br />
*English generation grammar (to be provided soon)<br />
*English disambiguation grammar (for generation) (to be provided soon)<br />
<br />
== Participants ==<br />
*Carolin ARNOLD (German)<br />
*Ewa CZAJKOWSKA (Polish)<br />
*Grega MILHARCIC (Slovenian)<br />
*Luisa GOUVEIA (Portuguese)<br />
*Martin LUTS (Estonian)<br />
*Mihaela ILIOAIA (Romanian)<br />
*Ofelia HOVHANNISYAN (Armenian)<br />
*Olga VARTZIOTI (Greek) <br />
*Polina LENKOVA (Russian) <br />
*Ronaldo MARTINS (UNL)<br />
*Sameh ALANSARY (Arabic)<br />
*Sara STYMNE (Swedish)<br />
*Yordanka STANCHEVA (Bulgarian)<br />
<br />
== Program ==<br />
;Feb 06th, 2012 - Monday<br />
:09:00-10:00 Introduction<br />
:10:00-12:00 I – Corpus<br />
:14:00-17:00 II – UNL-NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 07th, 2012 - Tuesday <br />
:09:00-12:00 III – Morphology (inflectional paradigms)<br />
:14:00-17:00 IV – NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 08th, 2012- Wednesday<br />
:09:00-12:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 09th, 2012 - Thursday<br />
:09:00-12:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 10th, 2012 - Friday<br />
:09:00-12:00 Evaluation<br />
:14:00-17:00 Discussion</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=VIII_UNL_School&diff=16741VIII UNL School2025-10-20T20:25:47Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Presentations */</p>
<hr />
<div>The VIII UNL School, formerly UNL Grammar Workshop, was held in Geneva, Switzerland, from Feb 6-10, 2012.<br />
== Languages ==<br />
*Armenian<br />
*Bulgarian<br />
*Estonian<br />
*German<br />
*Greek<br />
*Polish<br />
*Portuguese<br />
*Romanian<br />
*Russian<br />
*Swedish<br />
<br />
== Goals ==<br />
*To build the basic modules of a NL-UNL (analysis) grammar<br />
*To build the basic modules of a UNL-UNL (generation) grammar<br />
<br />
== Corpus ==<br />
*[[Corpus500]]<br />
<br />
== Deliverables ==<br />
;DEADLINE: 01 SEP 2012<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*The manual translated version of the 500 sentences of the reference corpus (corpus_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis dictionary used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis grammar used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The analysis disambiguation grammar, if any, used to analyze those 500 sentences (ana_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The UNL output for those 500 sentences generated from the dictionary and grammars above (ana_out_LID.txt)<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*The generation dictionary used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dic_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation grammar, including inflectional paradigms, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_gra_LID.txt)<br />
*The generation disambiguation grammar, if any, used to generate the reference corpus onto natural language (gen_dis_LID.txt)<br />
*The natural language output generated from the dictionary and grammars above (gen_out_LID.txt)<br />
:'''LID''' is to be replaced by the ISO639-2 two-character code of the language (en = English, el = Greek, etc.). Accordingly, the Greek corpus is to be provided as corpus_el.txt; the Greek analysis dictionary, as ana_dic_el.txt; and so on. All the files must be shared with "martins" in EUGENE and IAN.<br />
<br />
== Presentations ==<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" align=center<br />
!Title<br />
!pdf<br />
!pptx<br />
|-<br />
|Corpus<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Corpus.pdf pdf]<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Corpus.pptx pptx]<br />
|-<br />
|NL-UNL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary1.pdf pdf]<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary1.pptx pptx]<br />
|-<br />
|UNL-NL Dictionary<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary2.pdf pdf]<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Dictionary2.pptx pptx]<br />
|-<br />
|Grammar<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Grammar.pdf pdf]<br />
|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/Grammar.pptx pptx]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== English examples and templates ==<br />
;ANALYSIS (IAN)<br />
*Dictionaries<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic_eng.txt English analysis dictionary (for the reference corpus)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dic.txt Default dictionary (punctuation and regular expressions)]<br />
*Grammars<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.pdf English analysis grammar (simplified)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra_eng.txt English analysis grammar (full)]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_gra.txt Default analysis grammar]<br />
**[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/geneva2012/ana_dis_eng.txt English disambiguation grammar]<br />
;GENERATION (EUGENE)<br />
*English generation dictionary (to be provided soon)<br />
*English generation grammar (to be provided soon)<br />
*English disambiguation grammar (for generation) (to be provided soon)<br />
<br />
== Participants ==<br />
*Carolin ARNOLD (German)<br />
*Ewa CZAJKOWSKA (Polish)<br />
*Grega MILHARCIC (Slovenian)<br />
*Luisa GOUVEIA (Portuguese)<br />
*Martin LUTS (Estonian)<br />
*Mihaela ILIOAIA (Romanian)<br />
*Ofelia HOVHANNISYAN (Armenian)<br />
*Olga VARTZIOTI (Greek) <br />
*Polina LENKOVA (Russian) <br />
*Ronaldo MARTINS (UNL)<br />
*Sameh ALANSARY (Arabic)<br />
*Sara STYMNE (Swedish)<br />
*Yordanka STANCHEVA (Bulgarian)<br />
<br />
== Program ==<br />
;Feb 06th, 2012 - Monday<br />
:09:00-10:00 Introduction<br />
:10:00-12:00 I – Corpus<br />
:14:00-17:00 II – UNL-NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 07th, 2012 - Tuesday <br />
:09:00-12:00 III – Morphology (inflectional paradigms)<br />
:14:00-17:00 IV – NL dictionary<br />
;Feb 08th, 2012- Wednesday<br />
:09:00-12:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 V – UNL-NL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 09th, 2012 - Thursday<br />
:09:00-12:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (I)<br />
:14:00-17:00 VI – NL-UNL grammar (II)<br />
;Feb 10th, 2012 - Friday<br />
:09:00-12:00 Evaluation<br />
:14:00-17:00 Discussion</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=I_UNL_Olympiad&diff=16740I UNL Olympiad2025-10-20T20:23:45Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>The UNL Olympiad is a series of competitions organised by the UNDL Foundation in order to foster the development of UNL-driven resources (dictionaries, grammars and corpora). The first edition of the Olympiad is devoted to the development of grammars for the corpus [[UC-A1]], comprising 100 sentences. The competition is open to any participant, and the deadline is February 15th, 2013. <br />
<br />
== Important dates ==<br />
*<strike>November 15th, 2012: Call for Participation</strike><br />
*<strike>February 15th, 2013: Deadline for submitting the files</strike><br />
<br />
== Modalities ==<br />
The competition is organised in two modalities:<br />
*Best UNLization Grammar for <LANGUAGE><br />
*Best NLization Grammar for <LANGUAGE><br />
Where <LANGUAGE> is one of the languages participating in this Olympiad (see the complete list below).<br /><br />
Candidates may participate in one or two modalities, i.e., they may work with the UNLization grammar, with the NLization grammar, or with both.<br /><br />
Candidates may also participate in one or more languages, provided that they belong to the list below.<br />
<br />
== Prizes ==<br />
Prizes are awarded to the best grammars of each modality (UNLization and NLization) for each language<ref>This means that for each language there will be awarded up to 6 prizes: Best UNLization Grammar, Second Best UNLization Grammar, Third Best UNLization Grammar, Best NLization Grammar, Second Best UNLization Grammar and Third Best NLization Grammar</ref>:<br />
*1st place: Gold Medal and USD500.00<br />
*2nd place: Silver Medal<br />
*3rd place: Bronze Medal<br />
Additionally, the authors of the three best UNLization Grammars among all languages and the authors of the three best NLization Grammars among all languages will also be invited to participate in the next intermediate-level grammar workshop, to be held in Geneva, Switzerland, on May 2013.<br />
<br />
== Registration ==<br />
Candidates must be registered at the [http://www.unlweb.net UNLweb]. Participation is open and free, and the registration to the Olympiad is done by sending the following files to r.martins@undlfoundation.org until 23:59:59 (UTC) of February 15th, 2013.<br />
*For the participants working with the UNLization grammar (IAN):<br />
**UCA1_<LID>.txt, with the human translation, to the target language, of the sentences of the Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**<LID>_unl_dic.txt, with the natural language analysis dictionary used to UNLize the translated version of the Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**<LID>_unl_tgrammar.txt, with the transformation grammar used to UNLize the translated version of the Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**<LID>_unl_dgrammar.txt, with the disambiguation grammar used to UNLize the translated version of the Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**<LID>_unl_output.txt, with the output provided by IAN<br />
*For the participants working with the NLization grammar (EUGENE)<br />
**UCA1_<LID>.txt, with the human translation, to the target language, of the sentences of the Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**unl_<LID>_dic.txt, with the natural language generation dictionary used to NLize the UNL version of Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**unl_<LID>_tgrammar.txt, with the transformation grammar used to NLize the UNL version of the Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**unl_<LID>_dgrammar.txt, with the disambiguation grammar used to NLize the UNL version of the Corpus UC-A1;<br />
**unl_<LID>_output.txt, with the output provided by EUGENE<br />
Where <LID> must be replaced by the three-character language according to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_639-3_codes ISO 639-3].<ref>For instance, the files to be provided by Russian (code = "rus") must be UCA1_rus.txt, rus_unl_dic.txt, rus_unl_tgrammar.txt, etc.</ref>.<br /><br />
All files must be provided in UTF-8.<br />
<br />
== Requisites ==<br />
The competition is free and open to any participant, but it is limited to the set of languages described below.<br /><br />
The files must comply with the following requisites:<br />
*The corpus must comply with the translation standards of the target language and should not be artificially translated in order to provoke better results. <br />
*The input corpus used in UNLization will be used as the reference corpus used to evaluate the NLization output.<br />
*The dictionary files must comply with the [[Dictionary Specs]] and may only bring features present in the [[Tagset]]. They should not contain temporary words. <br />
*The grammar files must comply with the [[Grammar Specs]] and must be as generic possible. They should not target the specific sentences of the corpus, but the general structures presented there. <br />
*The [[F-measure]] of the grammars must be equal or greater than 0.8.<ref>The F-measure may be calculate at UNLWEB>UNLARIUM>GRAMMAR>[LOCALE]>F-MEASURE</ref><br />
*The files must be original. Grammars whose similarity proves to go beyond any reasonable doubt will be discarded, unless provided by the same author (for different languages).<br />
<br />
== Evaluation ==<br />
Grammars will be evaluated and ranked according to the following criteria:<br />
*Best [[F-measure]]<br />
*Scalability (i.e., extendibility, or the capacity of being reused to other corpora), in case of grammars with the same F-Measure<br />
*Date of submission, in case of grammars with the same F-Measure and equally scalable<br />
<br />
== Languages ==<br />
The I UNL Olympiad will be dedicated to the development of grammars for the following languages<ref>The choice of the languages was motivated by three criteria: 1) Languages for which we do not have the basic grammars yet; 2) Languages that have participated in the recent UNL Schools; and 3) Languages that have already started the project MIR-A1.</ref> <br />
*Assamese<br />
*Baatonum<br />
*Bengali<br />
*Bulgarian<br />
*Chinese<br />
*Croatian<br />
*Dutch<br />
*German<br />
*Gujarati<br />
*Hindi<br />
*Hungarian<br />
*Indonesian<br />
*Italian<br />
*Japanese<br />
*Kashmiri<br />
*Malayalam<br />
*Manipuri<br />
*Marathi<br />
*Oriya<br />
*Persian<br />
*Polish<br />
*Romanian<br />
*Russian<br />
*Sanskrit<br />
*Sindhi<br />
*Slovak<br />
*Swahili<br />
*Swedish<br />
*Tamil<br />
*Telugu<br />
*Thai<br />
*Turkish<br />
*Ukrainian<br />
<br />
Candidates may participate in one or more languages above.<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
=== General results ===<br />
*Best UNLization Grammar:<br />
**Gold Metal: Grega Milharcic (hun,ita,nld,slk,ukr)<br />
**Silver Medal: Mihaela Ilioaia (rom)<br />
**Bronze Medal: Sergiy Prots (pol)<br />
*Best NLization Grammar<br />
**Gold Medal: Grega Milharcic (ukr, nld)<br />
**Silver Medal: Sergiy Prots (rus)<br />
**Bronze Medal: Mihaela Ilioaia (rom)<br />
<br />
=== Results by language pair* ===<br />
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Only for grammars whose F-measure are equal or higher than 0.8<br />
{|border=1 cellpadding=5<br />
!Grammars<br />
!F-measure<br />
!Author<br />
!Position<br/>in the language pair<br />
!Files<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|bul>unl||align=center|0.873||align=center|Yordanka Stancheva||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/bul_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|hun>unl||align=center|1.000||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/hun_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|ita>unl||align=center|1.000||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/ita_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|nld>unl||align=center|1.000||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/nld_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|ori>unl||align=center|0.840||align=center|Ranjan Das||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/ori_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|pol>unl||align=center|0.920||align=center|Sergiy Prots||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/pol_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|rom>unl||align=center|0.940||align=center|Mihaela Ilioaia||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/rom_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|rus>unl||align=center|0.880||align=center|Sergiy Prots||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/rus_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|slk>unl||align=center|0.970||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/slk_unl.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|ukr>unl||align=center|0.970||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/ukr_unl_1.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|ukr>unl||align=center|0.880||align=center|Sergiy Prots||align=center|Silver Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/ukr_unl_2.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>hun||align=center|0.930||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_hun.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>ita||align=center|0.930||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammars/UCA1/unl_ita.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>nld||align=center|0.950||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_nld.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>pol||align=center|0.920||align=center|Sergiy Prots||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_pol.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>rom||align=center|0.900||align=center|Mihaela Ilioaia||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_rom.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>rus||align=center|0.940||align=center|Sergiy Prots||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_rus.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>slk||align=center|0.930||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_slk.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>ukr||align=center|0.970||align=center|Grega Milharcic||align=center|Gold Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_ukr_1.rar]<br />
|-<br />
|align=center|unl>ukr||align=center|0.940||align=center|Sergiy Prots||align=center|Silver Medal||align=center|[http://www.unlweb.net.br/resources/grammar/UCA1/unl_ukr_2.rar]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Tagset&diff=16739Tagset2025-10-20T20:03:24Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Tree of attributes and values */</p>
<hr />
<div>The set of features in a UNL-driven dictionary depends on the structure of the natural language and may vary a lot. However, in order to better standardize lexical resources inside the UNL framework, the UNDL Foundation recommends the adoption of the following tags for some specific and pervasive grammatical phenomena. Several of those linguistic constants have been already proposed to the '''Data Category Registry''' (ISO 12620), and represent widely accepted linguistic concepts. Our main intention here is just to provide a harmonized system to be shared by the UNL community so as to make dictionaries as easily understandable and exchangeable as possible.<br />
<br />
== When to use the UNDLF Tagset ==<br />
<br />
The UNDLF Tagset is required for providing lexical resources (dictionary entries and grammar rules) in the [http://www.undlfoundation.org/unlarium UNLarium] framework. Indeed, the whole environment has been already prepared to accept only the tags here presented. In most cases, the use of tags is rather unnoticeable and effortless, since users are supposed to make higher-level choices ("adjective", for instance) which will be internally represented through the corresponding authorized labels ("ADJ"). However, in several circumstances, as when creating inflectional paradigms or subcategorization frames, users are expected to address more fine-grained linguistic phenomena that may require a specialized metalanguage. That's exactly the purpose of this tagset: to provide the technical means for describing any linguistic behaviour. And it should do that in a strongly standardised way, i.e., so that others could easily understand and exploit the data for their own benefit.<br />
<br />
== General Guidelines == <br />
<br />
In order to define the tags to be used in the UNDLF Tagset, the following premises were adopted:<br />
*Tags should be as comprehensive as possible (i.e., they should cover all widely accepted linguistic concepts)<br />
*Tags should be as few as possible (i.e., they should avoid redundancy)<br />
*Tags should be as short as possible (i.e., they should fit in a three-character string)<br />
*Tags should be as mnemonic as possible (i.e., they should be provided through English acronyms or abbreviations)<br />
*Tags should constitute a taxonomic hierarchy (so that upper level values could be inferred from the lower ones).<br />
<br />
Additionally, the following conventions were adopted:<br />
*Tags are written in upper case letters;<br />
*Negation is represented by prefixation with "N-" (past = PAS, nonpast = NPAS).<br />
<br />
We have tried to stick to the standard abbreviations proposed by the [http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php Leipzig Glossing Rules] and by David Crystal in ''A dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics'' (2008), as much as they comply with the rules above. The resulting set of tags, which is still subject to additions and revisions, is presented below. For the time being, the definitions and examples have been extracted out of the ''Glossary of Linguistic Terms'' (Loos et alii), available at [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/ SIL International]. The tags are expected to migrate to an on-line environment, still under construction, where accredited linguists will have the opportunity to enhance and to improve this repertoire.<br />
<br />
== Tree of attributes and values ==<br />
<br />
The hierarchy of tags is depicted in the tree below. The topmost level represents the attributes of which the tags are a value. Lower positions subsume upper levels (for instance: progressive is a value of continuative, which is a value of imperfective, which is a value of the attribute aspect), but are not mandatory, as they can be too specialized ("go" is just a verb, and not any of the subcategories of verb). In any case, natural language phenomena should be classified as deep as possible in the tagset structure ("un-" should be classified as a prefix, rather than as an affix).<br />
<br />
[http://www.unlweb.net.br/unlarium/dictionary/export_tagset.php List of tags in alphabetical order]<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|openlevels=0|root=Tags|<br />
<br />
*[[abstractness]] (ABN)<br />
**abstract (ABT)<br />
**concrete (CCT)<br />
*[[adjacency]] (AJC)<br />
**immediate (AJ0)<br />
**nearest (AJ1)<br />
**near (AJ2)<br />
**distant (AJ3)<br />
**most distant (AJ4)<br />
*[[agreement]] (AGR)<br />
**assigns case (ACAS)<br />
**assigns gender (AGEN)<br />
**assigns number (ANUM)<br />
**assigns person (APER)<br />
**assigns tense (ATNS)<br />
**receives case (RCAS)<br />
**receives gender (RGEN)<br />
**receives number (RNUM)<br />
**receives person (RPER)<br />
**receives tense (RTNS)<br />
*alienability (ALY)<br />
**alienable (ALI)<br />
**unalienable (NALI)<br />
*[[animacy]] (ANI)<br />
**animate (ANM)<br />
**inanimate (NANM)<br />
*[[aspect]] (ASP)<br />
**aorist (AOR)<br />
**causative (CAU)<br />
**perfective (PFV)<br />
**imperfective (NPFV)<br />
***continuative (CTN)<br />
****progressive (PGS)<br />
***habitual (HAB)<br />
***iterative (ITE)<br />
**perfect (PFC)<br />
***experiential perfect aspect (EXP)<br />
***perfect of persistent situation (PSS)<br />
***perfect of recent past (PRP)<br />
***perfect of result (RES)<br />
**prospective (PPT)<br />
**inceptive (ICP)<br />
**terminative (TER)<br />
*cardinality (CAR)<br />
**one single referent (ONE)<br />
**a pair of referents (TWO)<br />
**three referents (TRE)<br />
**countable (CTB)<br />
**uncountable (NCTB)<br />
**collective (COL)<br />
**more than one referent (PLU)<br />
*[[case]] (CAS)<br />
**abessive (ABE)<br />
**ablative (ABL)<br />
**accusative (ACC)<br />
**adessive (ADE)<br />
**allative (ALL)<br />
**absolutive (ABS)<br />
**benefactive (BEN)<br />
**comitative (CMT)<br />
**construct state (CTS)<br />
**dative (DAT)<br />
**delative (DEL)<br />
**elative (ELA)<br />
**equative (EQU)<br />
**ergative (ERG)<br />
**essive (ESS)<br />
**genitive (GNT)<br />
**hortative (HOR)<br />
**illative (ILL)<br />
**inessive (INE)<br />
**instrumental (INS)<br />
**lative (LAT)<br />
**locative (LOC)<br />
**nominative (NOM)<br />
**oblique (OBL)<br />
**prolative (PLT)<br />
**prepositional (PPL)<br />
**partitive (PTT)<br />
**superessive (SPE)<br />
**terminative (TRM)<br />
**translative (TLT)<br />
**vocative (VOC)<br />
*defineteness (DFN)<br />
**definite (DEF)<br />
**generic (GNR)<br />
**indefinite (NDEF)<br />
**nonspecified (NSPC)<br />
**specificied (SPC)<br />
*[[degree]] (DEG)<br />
**augmentative (AUG)<br />
**comparative (CMP)<br />
**diminutive (DIM)<br />
**positive (PST)<br />
**superlative (SUP)<br />
***absolute superlative (SUPA)<br />
***comparative superlative (SUPR)<br />
*[[distribution]] (DIS)<br />
**after (AFT)<br />
**before (BEF)<br />
**end (END)<br />
**free (FRE)<br />
**front (FRT)<br />
**immediately after (IAFT)<br />
**immediately before (IBEF)<br />
**middle (MID)<br />
*[[information structure]] (IST)<br />
**focus (FOC)<br />
**rheme (RHE)<br />
**theme (THE)<br />
*[[gender]] (GEN)<br />
**feminine (FEM)<br />
**masculine (MCL)<br />
**neuter (NEU)<br />
**common (COM)<br />
**variable (VAR)<br />
*[[lexical category]] (LEX)<br />
**[[adjective]] (J)<br />
**[[adposition]] (P)<br />
**[[adverb]] (A)<br />
**[[affix]] (F)<br />
**[[conjunction]] (C)<br />
**[[determiner]] (D)<br />
**[[inflection]] (I)<br />
**[[noun]] (N)<br />
**[[numeral]] (U)<br />
**[[noun|proper noun]] (E)<br />
**[[pronoun]] (R)<br />
**[[verb]] (V)<br />
**other (O)<br />
*[[lexical structure]] (LST)<br />
**subword (SBW)<br />
**simple word (WRD)<br />
***abbreviation (ABB) and single-word contraction<br />
***clitic (CLI)<br />
**multiword expression (MTW)<br />
***acronym (ACR) and initialism<br />
***multiple-word contraction (CTT) and blend<br />
*[[modality]] (MOD)<br />
**realis (REA)<br />
**irrealis (NREA)<br />
**alethic (ALE)<br />
**deontic (DEO)<br />
***comissive (CMS)<br />
***directive (DRT)<br />
***volitive (VLT)<br />
**epistemic (EPI)<br />
***evidentiality (EVI)<br />
***judgment (JDG)<br />
*[[mood]] (MOO)<br />
**none (non-finite verb forms) (VBL)<br />
***gerund (GER)<br />
***gerundive (GDV)<br />
***infinitive (INF)<br />
***participle (PTP)<br />
***supine (SPN)<br />
**assumptive (AUM)<br />
**causative (CAU)<br />
**conditional (CON)<br />
**declarative (DEC)<br />
**deductive (DED)<br />
**deliberative (DLB)<br />
**dubitative (DUB)<br />
**hypothetical (HYP)<br />
**imperative (IMP)<br />
**imprecative (IPC)<br />
**indicative (IND)<br />
**inferential (INFR)<br />
**interrogative (INT)<br />
**jussive (JUS)<br />
**obligative (OBM)<br />
**optative (OPT)<br />
**permissive (PMS)<br />
**potential (POT)<br />
**precative (PCT)<br />
**prohibitive (PHB)<br />
**speculative (SPT)<br />
**subjunctive (SUB)<br />
*[[morphology]] (MOR)<br />
**affix (AFF)<br />
***inflectional affix (IAX) <br />
***derivational affix (DAX)<br />
**base form (BF)<br />
***root (ROO)<br />
***stem (STE)<br />
**word form (WFO)<br />
**alternative form (ALT)<br />
***alternative form 1 (ALT1)<br />
***alternative form 2 (ALT2)<br />
***alternative form 3 (ALT3)<br />
***short or weak form (SHO)<br />
***long or strong form (STR)<br />
*[[number]] (NUM)<br />
**singular (SNG)<br />
***singulare tantum (SNGT)<br />
**plural (PLR)<br />
***dual (DUA)<br />
***trial (TRI)<br />
***quadrual (QDR)<br />
***paucal (PAU)<br />
***multal (MUL)<br />
***plurale tantum (PLRT)<br />
**invariant (INV)<br />
*[[part of speech]] (POS)<br />
**[[adjective]]s (J)<br />
***adjective (ADJ)<br />
***participle (PTL)<br />
**[[adposition]] (P)<br />
***circumposition (CIR)<br />
***postposition (PPS)<br />
***preposition (PRE)<br />
**[[adverb]] (A)<br />
***specifier adverb (SAV)<br />
***adjunct adverb (AAV)<br />
***conjunct (CJT)<br />
***disjunct (DJT)<br />
**[[affix]] (F)<br />
***circumfix (CCX)<br />
***infix (IFX)<br />
***prefix (PFX)<br />
***suffix (SFX)<br />
**[[conjunction]] (C)<br />
***coordinating conjunction (COO)<br />
****correlative conjunction (CRC)<br />
***subordinating conjunction (SCJ)<br />
****adverbializer (AVR)<br />
****complementizer (CMR)<br />
****relativizer (RVZ)<br />
**[[determiner]] (D)<br />
***article (ART)<br />
***demonstrative determiner (DEM)<br />
***possessive determiner (POD)<br />
***quantifier (QUA)<br />
**inflection (I)<br />
***auxiliary verb (AUX)<br />
****modal verb (MOV)<br />
**[[noun]] (N)<br />
***common noun (NOU)<br />
**[[noun|proper noun]] (E)<br />
***proper noun (PPN)<br />
**[[numeral]] (U)<br />
***DIGIT (digits)<br />
****DOZEN (used to deal with dozens)<br />
****HUNDRED (used to deal with hundreds)<br />
***cardinal numeral (CDN)<br />
***distributive numeral (DTN)<br />
***partitive numeral (PTN)<br />
***multiplicative numeral (MLN)<br />
***ordinal numeral (ORD)<br />
**[[pronoun]] (R)<br />
***demonstrative pronoun (DEP)<br />
***dummy pronoun (DUM)<br />
***emphatic pronoun (EPR)<br />
***indefinite pronoun (NPR)<br />
***interrogative pronoun (IPR)<br />
***personal pronoun (PPR)<br />
***possessive pronoun (SPR)<br />
***reciprocal pronoun (CPR)<br />
***reflexive pronoun (FPR)<br />
***relative pronoun (RPR)<br />
**[[verb]] (V)<br />
***full verb (VER)<br />
***copula (COP)<br />
**other (O)<br />
***classifier (CLA)<br />
***interjection (ITJ)<br />
***particle (PTC)<br />
***punctuation (PUT)<br />
****blank (BLK)<br />
****<nowiki>' </nowiki>(APOSTROPHE)<br />
****<nowiki>- </nowiki>(HYPHEN)<br />
****<nowiki>! </nowiki>(EMARK)<br />
****<nowiki>" </nowiki>(QUOTE)<br />
****<nowiki># </nowiki>(HASH)<br />
****<nowiki>$ </nowiki>(DOLLAR)<br />
****<nowiki>% </nowiki>(PERCENTAGE)<br />
****<nowiki>& </nowiki>(AMPERSAND)<br />
****<nowiki>( </nowiki>(OPARENTHESIS)<br />
****<nowiki>) </nowiki>(CPARENTHESIS)<br />
****<nowiki>* </nowiki>(ASTERISK)<br />
****<nowiki>, </nowiki>(COMMA)<br />
****<nowiki>. </nowiki>(PERIOD)<br />
****<nowiki>/ </nowiki>(FSLASH)<br />
****<nowiki>: </nowiki>(COLON)<br />
****<nowiki>; </nowiki>(SEMICOLON)<br />
****<nowiki>? </nowiki>(QMARK)<br />
****<nowiki>[ </nowiki>(OSBRACKET)<br />
****<nowiki>\ </nowiki>(BSLASH)<br />
****<nowiki>] </nowiki>(CSBRACKET)<br />
****<nowiki>{ </nowiki>(OCBRACE)<br />
****<nowiki>} </nowiki>(CCBRACE)<br />
****<nowiki>€ </nowiki>(EURO)<br />
****<nowiki>+ </nowiki>(PLUS)<br />
****<nowiki>< </nowiki>(LTHAN)<br />
****<nowiki>= </nowiki>(EQUAL)<br />
****<nowiki>> </nowiki>(GTHAN)<br />
*[[person]] (PER)<br />
**impersonal (NPER)<br />
**first person (1PER)<br />
***first person singular (1PS)<br />
***first person plural (1PP)<br />
****123PP (me, you and others)<br />
****13PP (me and others)<br />
**second person (2PER)<br />
***second person singular (2PS)<br />
***second person plural (2PP)<br />
**third person (3PER)<br />
***third person singular (3PS)<br />
***third person plural (3PP)<br />
*[[polarity]] (POL)<br />
**affirmative (AFM)<br />
**negative (NEG)<br />
*[[register]] (REG)<br />
**archaism (ARC)<br />
**colloquialism (CLQ)<br />
**dialect (DIA)<br />
**jargon (JGN)<br />
**literary (LIT)<br />
**pejorative (PEJ)<br />
**slang (SLG)<br />
**taboo (TAB)<br />
*[[social deixis]] (SOD)<br />
**solidarity (SOL)<br />
***familiar (FAM)<br />
***intimate (ITM)<br />
***polite (PLN)<br />
**status (STS)<br />
***equivalent (EVL)<br />
***inferior (IFS)<br />
***reverential (REV)<br />
***superior (SPS)<br />
*[[syntactic roles]] (SYN)<br />
**adjunct (XA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of an adjective phrase (JA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of an adverbial phrase (AA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of a complementizer phrase (CA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of a determiner phrase (DA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of an inflectional phrase (IA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of a nominal phrase (NA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of a prepositional phrase (PA)<br />
***adjunct to the head of a verbal phrase (VA)<br />
**complement (XC)<br />
***complement of the head of an adjective phrase (JC)<br />
***complement of the head of an adverbial phrase (AC)<br />
***complement of the head of a complementizer phrase (CC)<br />
***complement of the head of a determiner phrase (DC)<br />
***complement of the head of an inflectional phrase (IC)<br />
***complement of the head of a nominal phrase (NC)<br />
***complement of the head of a prepositional phrase (PC)<br />
***complement of the head of a verbal phrase (VC)<br />
**head (XH)<br />
***head of an adverbial phrase (AH)<br />
***head of an adjective phrase (JH)<br />
***head of a complementizer phrase (CH)<br />
***head of a determiner phrase (DH)<br />
***head of an inflectional phrase (IH)<br />
***head of a nominal phrase (NH)<br />
***head of a prepositional phrase (PH)<br />
***head of a verbal phrase (VH)<br />
**specifier (XS)<br />
***specifier of the head of an adjective phrase(JS)<br />
***specifier of the head of an adverbial phrase (AS)<br />
***specifier of the head of a complementizer phrase (CS)<br />
***specifier of the head of a determiner phrase(DS)<br />
***specifier of the head of an inflectional phrase (IS)<br />
***specifier of the head of a nominal phrase (NS)<br />
***specifier of the head of a prepositional phrase (PS)<br />
***specifier of the head of a verbal phrase (VS)<br />
**maximal projection (XP)<br />
***adjective phrase (JP)<br />
***adverbial phrase (AP)<br />
***complementizer phrase (CP)<br />
***determiner phrase (DP)<br />
***inflectional phrase (IP)<br />
***nominal phrase (NP)<br />
***prepositional phrase (PP)<br />
***verbal phrase (VP)<br />
**intermediate projection (XB)<br />
***adverbial phrase (AB)<br />
***adjective phrase (JB)<br />
***complementizer phrase (CB)<br />
***determiner phrase (DB)<br />
***inflectional phrase (IB)<br />
***nominal phrase (NB)<br />
***prepositional phrase (PB)<br />
***verbal phrase (VB)<br />
**trace (TRACE)<br />
*[[tense]] (TNS)<br />
**absolute tense (ATE)<br />
***past (PAS)<br />
***present (PRS)<br />
****preterit (PTR)<br />
****hesternal past tense (HEP)<br />
****prehesternal past tense (PEP)<br />
****hodiernal past tense (HOP)<br />
****prehodiernal past tense (POP)<br />
****immediate past tense (IPT)<br />
****nonrecent past tense (NRCP)<br />
****recent past tense (RCP)<br />
****nonremote past tense (NRMP)<br />
****remote past tense (RMP)<br />
***future (FUT)<br />
****near future (FUN)<br />
****remote future (FUR)<br />
***nonpast (NPAS)<br />
***nonfuture (NFUT)<br />
***still (STL)<br />
***not-yet (NYET)<br />
**relative tense (RTE)<br />
***relative past (RPT)<br />
***relative nonpast (NRPT)<br />
***relative present (RPS)<br />
***relative future (RFT)<br />
***relative nonfuture (NRFT)<br />
*[[transitivity]] (TRA)<br />
**no transitivity (NTRA) (linking verb)<br />
**transitive (TST)<br />
***direct transitive (TSTD)<br />
***indirect transitive (TSTI)<br />
***ditransitive (TST2)<br />
***tritransitive (TST3)<br />
**intransitive (NTST)<br />
***unergative (NERG)<br />
***unaccusative (NACC)<br />
*[[Universal Attribute]]s (att)<br />
**animacy attributes (ANIA)<br />
**aspect attributes (ASPA)<br />
**degree attributes (DEGA)<br />
**emotion attributes (FEEL)<br />
**figure of speech attributes (FIGA)<br />
**gender attributes (GENA)<br />
**information structure attributes (ISTA)<br />
**lexical attributes (LEXA)<br />
**manner attributes (HOW)<br />
**modality attributes (MODA)<br />
**person attributes (PERA)<br />
**polarity attributes (POLA)<br />
**place attributes (WHERE)<br />
**quantification attributes (QUAA)<br />
**register attributes (REGA)<br />
**social deixis attributes (SODA)<br />
**specification attributes (WHICH)<br />
**syntactic structures (SYNA)<br />
**time attributes (WHEN)<br />
**voice attribute (VOIA)<br />
*[[Universal Relations]] (rel)<br />
*[[Universal Words]] (SEM)<br />
**Adjective concepts<br />
***age (AGE)<br />
***colour (COR)<br />
***dimension (DMS)<br />
***human propensity (HPP)<br />
***physical property (PHY)<br />
***speed (SPD)<br />
***value (VLE)<br />
***other adjectives (JJJ)<br />
**Adverbial concepts<br />
***degree (DGR)<br />
***manner (MAN)<br />
***place (PLE)<br />
***time (TME)<br />
***other adverbs (AAA)<br />
**Nominal concepts<br />
***act or action (ACT)<br />
***animal (ANL)<br />
***artifact (ARF) (man-made objects)<br />
***attribute (ATR) (of people and objects)<br />
***body part (BON)<br />
***cognitive processes and contents (CGN)<br />
***communicative processes and contents (CMN)<br />
***feelings and emotions (FEE)<br />
***foods and drinks (FOO)<br />
***groupings of people or objects (GRO)<br />
***location (LCT) (spatial position)<br />
***motive (MTV) (goals)<br />
***natural events (NEV)<br />
***natural objects (NOB) (non man-made objects)<br />
***natural phenomena (PHE)<br />
***plant (PLA)<br />
***possession or transfer of possession (PON)<br />
***natural process (NAT)<br />
***person (HUM)<br />
***quantities and units of measure (QTT)<br />
***relations between people or things or ideas (REL)<br />
***substance (SBS)<br />
***shape (SHA) (two or three-dimensional shapes)<br />
***state (STA) (stable states of affairs)<br />
***time and temporal relations (TIM)<br />
**Verbal concepts<br />
***body action (BOV)<br />
***cognitive verb (CGV)<br />
***change (CHA)<br />
***communication verb (CMV)<br />
***competition (CPT)<br />
***creation (CRE)<br />
***consumption (CSM)<br />
***contact (CTC)<br />
***emotion (EMO)<br />
***motion (MOT)<br />
***perception (PCP)<br />
***possession verb (POV)<br />
***social (SOC)<br />
***stative (STT)<br />
***weather (WEA)<br />
*[[valency]] (VAL)<br />
**avalent (VAL0)<br />
**monovalent (VAL1)<br />
**divalent (VAL2)<br />
**trivalent (VAL3)<br />
**tetravalent (VAL4)<br />
*[[voice]] (VOI)<br />
**active voice (ACV)<br />
**middle voice (MIV)<br />
**passive voice (PSV)<br />
*other<br />
**System-defined values<br />
***CHEAD (beginning of a scope)<br />
***CTAIL (end of a scope)<br />
***DIGIT (digits)<br />
***SCOPE (scope)<br />
***SHEAD (beginning of the sentence)<br />
***STAIL (end of the sentence)<br />
***TEMP (temporary entry - not found in the dictionary)<br />
**Grammar-related attributes<br />
***FLX (inflectional rules)<br />
***FRA (subcategorization frame)<br />
***GOV (subcategorization rules)<br />
***PAR (inflectional paradigm)<br />
***SFR (semantic frame)<br />
}}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Attributes&diff=16738Universal Attributes2025-10-20T20:02:51Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Set of attributes */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Attributes''' are arcs linking a node to itself. In opposition to [[Universal Relations]], they correspond to one-place predicates, i.e., functions that take a single argument. In UNL, attributes have been normally used to represent information conveyed by natural language grammatical categories (such as tense, mood, aspect, number, etc). The set of attributes, which is claimed to be universal, is defined in the [[Specs|UNL Specs]] and is not open to frequent additions.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
The syntax of attributes is defined as follows:<br />
<br />
<nowiki><attribute> ::= "@"<attribute name></nowiki><br />
<nowiki><attribute name> ::= <character>+</nowiki><br />
<nowiki><character> ::= {“a”,...,“z”,“_”}</nowiki><br />
<br />
where:<br /><br />
< > variable<br /><br />
" " terminal symbol<br /><br />
<nowiki>::=</nowiki>... is defined as ...<br /><br />
{ } disjunction ("or")<br /><br />
<nowiki>+</nowiki> to be used one or more times<br /><br />
... to be repeated more than 0 times<br /><br />
<br />
Attribute names are always lower case words or expressions. Normally, English words ("past", "will") or mnemonic abbreviations ("def", "pl") are used for attribute labelling. No blank space is allowed inside an attribute name.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
Attributes are annotations made to nodes or hypernodes of a UNL hypergraph. They denote the circumstances under which these nodes (or hypernodes) are used. <br />
<br />
Attributes may convey three different kinds of information: <br />
*The information on the role of the node in the UNL graph (as in the case for '@entry', that indicates the main (starting) node of a UNL directed graph);<br />
*The information conveyed by bound morphemes and closed classes, such as affixes (gender, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc), determiners (articles and demonstratives), adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions), conjunctions, auxiliary and quasi-auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries, modals, coverbs, preverbs) and degree adverbs (specifiers). <br />
*The information on the (external) context of the utterance, i.e., non-verbal elements of communication, such as prosody, sentence and text structure, politeness, schemes, social deixis and speech acts.<br />
<br />
== Set of attributes ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.unlweb.net.br/unlarium/dictionary/export_attributes.php List of attributes in alphabetical order]<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|openlevels=0|root=att|<br />
*[[animacy]] (ANIA)<br />
**@person<br />
**@thing<br />
*[[aspect]] (ASPA)<br />
**@causative: causative<br />
**@continuative: continuous<br />
**@experiential: experience<br />
**@habitual: habitual<br />
**@imperfective: uncompleted<br />
**@inceptive: beginning<br />
**@inchoative: change of state<br />
**@iterative: repetition<br />
**@perfect: perfect<br />
**@perfective: completed<br />
**@permissive: permissive<br />
**@persistent: persistent<br />
**@progressive: ongoing<br />
**@prospective: imminent<br />
**@result: result<br />
**@terminative: cessation<br />
*[[degree]] (DEGA)<br />
**@almost: approximative<br />
**@also: repetitive<br />
**positive<br />
***@again: iterative<br />
***@emphasis: emphasis<br />
***@enough: sufficiently (enough)<br />
***@extra: excessively (too) <br />
***@minus: downtoned (a little)<br />
***@plus: intensified (very)<br />
**comparative<br />
***@more: comparative of superiority<br />
***@less: comparative of inferiority<br />
***@equal: comparative of equality<br />
**superlative<br />
***@most: superlative of superiority<br />
***@least: superlative of inferiority<br />
*[[emotion]]s (FEEL)<br />
**@anger<br />
**@attention<br />
**@consent<br />
**@contentment<br />
**@disagreement<br />
**@discontentment<br />
**@dissent<br />
**@hesitation<br />
**@pain<br />
**@relief<br />
**@surprise<br />
**@weariness <br />
*[[figure of speech]] (FIGA)<br />
**Schemes<br />
***@brachylogia: omission of conjunctions between a series of words <br />
***@chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses<br />
***@climax: arrangement of words in order of increasing importance<br />
***@consonance: repetition of consonant sounds without the repetition of the vowel sounds<br />
***@ellipsis: omission of words<br />
***@epanalepsis: repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence<br />
***@interruption: insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence<br />
***@parallelism: use of similar structures in two or more clauses<br />
***@pleonasm: Use of superfluous or redundant words<br />
***@polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root<br />
***@polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions<br />
***@symploce: combination of anaphora and epistrophe<br />
**Tropes<br />
***@anthropomorphism: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism)<br />
***@antiphrasis: Word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony<br />
***@antonomasia: Substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa<br />
***@catachresis: use an existing word to denote something that has no name in the current language<br />
***@double_negative: Grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words<br />
***@dysphemism: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism<br />
***@epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue<br />
***@euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another<br />
***@hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis<br />
***@irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning<br />
***@metaphor: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality<br />
***@metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant<br />
***@onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning<br />
***@oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other<br />
***@paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth<br />
***@paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used<br />
***@periphrasis: Using several words instead of few<br />
***@repetition: Repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect<br />
***@synecdoche: Form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole<br />
***@synesthesia: Description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.<br />
***@zoomorphism: Applying animal characteristics to humans or gods <br />
*[[gender]] (GENA)<br />
**@female<br />
**@male<br />
**@neutral<br />
*[[information structure]] (ISTA)<br />
**@comment: what is being said about the topic<br />
**@focus: information that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor<br />
**@topic: what is being talked about<br />
*[[lexical category]] (LEXA)<br />
**@adjective<br />
**@adverb<br />
**@noun<br />
**@verb<br />
*[[manner]] (HOW)<br />
**@according_to<br />
**@against<br />
**@although<br />
**@and<br />
**@as<br />
**@as.@if<br />
**@as_far_as<br />
**@as_of<br />
**@as_per<br />
**@as_regards<br />
**@as_well_as<br />
**@barring<br />
**@because<br />
**@because_of<br />
**@besides<br />
**@but<br />
**@by<br />
**@by_means_of<br />
**@concerning<br />
**@despite<br />
**@due_to<br />
**@even.@if<br />
**@except<br />
**@except.@if<br />
**@except_for<br />
**@excluding<br />
**@failing<br />
**@for<br />
**@given<br />
**@if<br />
**@if.@only<br />
**@in_accordance_with<br />
**@in_addition_to<br />
**@in_case<br />
**@in_case_of<br />
**@in_favor_of<br />
**@in_place_of<br />
**@in_spite_of<br />
**@including<br />
**@instead_of<br />
**@like<br />
**@notwithstanding<br />
**@off<br />
**@on_account_of<br />
**@on_behalf_of<br />
**@or<br />
**@owing_to<br />
**@pace<br />
**@per<br />
**@pursuant_to<br />
**@qua<br />
**@regarding<br />
**@regardless_of<br />
**@save<br />
**@so<br />
**@than<br />
**@thanks_to<br />
**@that_of<br />
**@unless<br />
**@unlike<br />
**@versus<br />
**@with<br />
**@with_regard_to<br />
**@with_relation_to<br />
**@with_respect_to<br />
**@without<br />
**@worth <br />
*[[modality]] (MODA)<br />
**@ability<br />
**@advice<br />
**@agreement<br />
**@assertion<br />
**@assumption<br />
**@belief<br />
**@command<br />
**@conclusion<br />
**@condition<br />
**@confirmation<br />
**@consequence<br />
**@conviction<br />
**@decision<br />
**@deduction<br />
**@desire<br />
**@determination<br />
**@doubt<br />
**@exclamation<br />
**@exhortation<br />
**@expectation<br />
**@fear<br />
**@hope<br />
**@hypothesis<br />
**@intention<br />
**@interrogation<br />
**@invitation<br />
**@judgement<br />
**@narrative<br />
**@necessity<br />
**@obligation<br />
**@opinion<br />
**@permission<br />
**@possibility<br />
**@prediction<br />
**@presumption<br />
**@probability<br />
**@prohibition<br />
**@promise<br />
**@regret<br />
**@request<br />
**@speculation<br />
**@suggestion<br />
**@threat<br />
**@warning<br />
*[[nominal attributes]] (NOUA)<br />
**@about<br />
**@round<br />
**@of<br />
*[[person]] (PERA)<br />
**@1 (first person: speaker)<br />
**@2 (second person: addressee)<br />
**@3 (third person)<br />
*[[place]] (WHERE)<br />
**location<br />
***@above<br />
***@among<br />
***@around<br />
***@at<br />
***@back<br />
***@behind<br />
***@below<br />
***@beside<br />
***@between<br />
***@beyond<br />
***@bottom<br />
***@front<br />
***@in<br />
***@inside<br />
***@left<br />
***@on<br />
***@opposite<br />
***@outside<br />
***@over<br />
***@right<br />
***@side<br />
***@top<br />
***@under<br />
***@within<br />
**position<br />
***@contact<br />
***@far<br />
***@near<br />
**direction<br />
***@across<br />
***@along<br />
***@clockwise<br />
***@down<br />
***@from<br />
***@through<br />
***@throughout<br />
***@to<br />
***@towards<br />
***@up<br />
*[[polarity]] (POLA)<br />
**@yes (affirmative)<br />
**@not (negative)<br />
**@maybe (dubitative)<br />
*[[quantification]] (QUAA)<br />
**@any (any) (existential quantifier)<br />
**@all (all) (universal quantifier)<br />
**@entire (entire)<br />
**@generic (no quantification)<br />
**@half (half)<br />
**@majority (a major part)<br />
**@minority (a minor part)<br />
**@no (none)<br />
**@part (part)<br />
**@pl (plural)<br />
***@dual<br />
***@trial<br />
***@quadrual<br />
***@paucal<br />
***@multal<br />
**@singular (default)<br />
**@times (multiplicative)<br />
**@tuple (collective)<br />
**@unit (unit)<br />
*[[register]] (REGA)<br />
**@archaic<br />
**@colloquial<br />
**@dialect<br />
**@jargon<br />
**@literary<br />
**@pejorative<br />
**@slang<br />
**@taboo<br />
*[[social deixis]] (SODA)<br />
**@equivalent<br />
**@familiar<br />
**@inferior<br />
**@intimate<br />
**@polite<br />
**@reverential<br />
**@superior<br />
*[[specification]] (WHICH)<br />
**@also (also)<br />
**@circa<br />
**@def (definite)<br />
***@both (both)<br />
***@distal (far from the speaker)<br />
***@each (each)<br />
***@either (either)<br />
***@medial (near the addressee)<br />
***@other (other)<br />
***@own (own)<br />
***@proximal (near the speaker)<br />
***@same (same)<br />
***@such (such)<br />
**@even<br />
**@indef (indefinite)<br />
***@certain (certain)<br />
***@wh<br />
**@neither<br />
**@only<br />
**@ordinal (ordinal)<br />
*syntactic structures (SYNA)<br />
**conventions<br />
***@angle_bracket<br />
***@brace<br />
***@double_parenthesis<br />
***@double_quote<br />
***@parenthesis<br />
***@single_quote<br />
***@square_bracket<br />
**@entry (sentence head)<br />
**@relative (relative clause head)<br />
**@speech (direct speech)<br />
**@title (title)<br />
**@vocative (vocative)<br />
*[[time]] (WHEN)<br />
**absolute tense<br />
***@past: at a time before the moment of utterance<br />
***@present: at the moment of utterance<br />
***@future: at a time after the moment of utterance<br />
***@recent: close to the moment of utterance<br />
***@remote: remote from the moment of utterance<br />
**relative tense<br />
***@anterior: before some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
***@posterior: after some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
**other<br />
***@after<br />
***@before<br />
***@during<br />
***@following<br />
***@prior_to<br />
***@since<br />
***@subsequent_to<br />
***@until<br />
*[[voice]] (VOIA)<br />
**@active: He built this house in 1895<br />
**@passive: This house was built in 1895.<br />
**@reflexive: He killed himself.<br />
**@reciprocal: They killed each other.<br />
}}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Words&diff=16737Universal Words2025-10-20T19:55:21Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Categories of UW's */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Words''', or simply '''UW's''', are the words of UNL, and correspond to nodes - to be interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]] - in a UNL graph. <br />
<br />
== Definition == <br />
The basic assumption of the UNL approach is that the information conveyed by natural languages can be formally represented through a [[semantic network]] made of three different types of discrete semantic units: Universal Words, [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]]. The Universal Words (UW's) are the nodes in the graph, to be interlinked by relations and specified by attributes. They correspond to semantic discrete units conveyed by natural language open lexical categories (noun, verb, adjective and adverb). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) is represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages.<br />
<br />
== The universality of UW's ==<br />
As the name indicates, Universal Words are expected to be "universal". This does not mean that they represent a sort of common lexical denominator to all languages or a semantic primitive. The concept of "[[universal|universality]]", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all", and Universal Words depict concepts that may range from absolutely global to absolutely local, and even temporary. They are "universal" in the sense that they are uniform identifiers to the entities defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]], which is expected to map everything that we know about the world, and that is used to assign translatability to any concept. <br />
<br />
UW's may represent concepts that are believed to be lexicalized<ref>i.e., consolidated as a single indivisible lexical unit.</ref>in most languages (such as "cause to die"); concepts that are lexicalized only in a few languages (such as "to execute someone by suffocation so as to leave the body intact and suitable for dissection"); concepts that are lexicalized in one single language (such as "a person who is ready to forgive any transgression a first time and then to tolerate it for a second time, but never for a third time"); and concepts that are not lexicalized in any language (such as "women that normally wear red hats and white shoes in big theaters"). The universality of a UW does not come from the type of concept that it represents, but from the way it does that: the UW provides a method for processing the concept, so that any natural language would be able to deal with it, either as a single node, if lexicalized, or as a hyper-node (i.e., a sub-graph), otherwise.<br />
<br />
== Permanent UW's and Temporary UW's ==<br />
UW's can be permanent or temporary.<br />
;Permanent UW's<br />
:Permanent UW's are included in the [[UNL Dictionary]] and correspond to concepts that have been already lexicalized in at least one language (i.e., which are conceived as single lexical items and included therefore in natural language dictionaries). They can be simple, compound or complex (see below).<br />
;Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UW's are words that:<br />
:*Represent concepts or entities that are still in process of lexicalization ("googlers", "twittered");<br />
:*Are too specific to be included in the UNL Dictionary ("Universal Networking Digital Language Foundation", "Léon Werth"); or<br />
:*Are not translatable ("3.14159", "H<sub>2</sub>O", "www.undlfoundation.org"); <br />
<br />
== Simple UW's, Compound UW's and Complex UW's ==<br />
Permanent UWs can be simple, compound or complex. <br />
<br />
;Simple UW's<br />
:A simple UW is an isolated node in the UNL graph. It is used when the UW represents a concept that is not compositional, i.e., that cannot be fully reduced to constituent concepts, such as "big" (> "above average"), "put" (> "cause to be in a certain state") or "stamp" (> "a small adhesive token"). <br />
<br />
;Compound UW's<br />
:A compound UW is an isolated node combined with attributes. It is used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of an existing simple UW and a UNL attribute, such as the concept conveyed by the English word "bigger", which can be represented simply as the UW corresponding to "big" specified by the degree attribute "@more".<br />
<br />
;Complex UW's<br />
:A complex UW is a hyper-node, i.e., a sub-graph inside the UNL graph. As graphs, complex UWs follow the structure defined for [[UNL Sentences]]. They are used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of existing UW's, relations and attributes, such as in the case of the concept conveyed by the English word "to stamp" (= "affix a stamp to"), which could be represented, in UNL, as the graph corresponding to the definition "affix a stamp to".<br />
<br />
== Principles ==<br />
;Sense<br />
:UW's represent sense and not reference. UW's are related to the intension (sense, meaning, connotation) rather than to the extension (reference, denotation) of linguistic expressions. The expressions "morning star" and "evening star", which are said to have the same reference (the planet Venus), must be necessarily represented by different UW's, because they convey different "modes of presentation" of the same object, i.e., have different senses: "the last star to disappear in the morning" and "the first star to appear in the evening", respectively.<br />
;Productivity<br />
:UW's must correspond to and only to contents conveyed by natural language '''open lexical categories''' (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) should be represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages. The only exception to this principle are the pro-forms, which are represented by a special type of UW, the pro-UW, or null UW (see below).<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:Simple UW's must correspond to and only to contents expressed by non-compositional lexical items, i.e., words and multiword expressions that cannot be fully reduced to the combination of existing UW's, attributes and relations. Compound and complex UW's must be used when the content can be fully determined by the meanings of constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them.<br />
;Comprehensiveness<br />
:UW's are "universal" in the sense that they constitute the lexicon of a "universal language", i.e., that they convey ideas that can be expressed in each and every language. They are not universal in the sense that they are lexicalized in all languages. In that sense, UW's are not to be considered semantic primitives, nor should represent only common concepts. The repertoire of UW's is supposed to be as comprehensive as the set of different individual concepts depicted by different cultures, no matter how specific they are. Furthermore, the lexicon of UNL constitutes an open set, subject to permanent increase with new UW's, as UNL is supposed to incessantly incorporate new cultures and cultural changes. <br />
;Universality<br />
:Permanent UW's may represent concepts with different degrees of universality and are stored accordingly in three nested lexical databases, which are subdivisions of the [[UNL Dictionary]]:<br />
:*The UNL Core Dictionary contains only permanent simple UW's that represent concepts that are (presumably) lexicalized in all languages<br />
:*The UNL Abridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least two different language families <br />
:*The UNL Unabridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language<br />
;Non-Ambiguity and Non-Redundancy<br />
:A given sense may not be represented by more than one UW, and one UW may not have more than one sense. There is no homonymy, synonymy or polysemy in UNL. <br />
;Simplicity<br />
:Simple UW's are names (and not definitions) for senses. The simple UW does not bring much (or any) information about its sense. It is just a label. Any information concerning the sense is expected to be provided by the three different lexical databases available inside the UNL framework: the [[UNL Dictionary]], the [[UNL Knowledge Base]] and the [[UNL Memory]].<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
Universal Words are represented as follows:<br />
*Permanent UW's<br />
**Simple UW's are represented as [[UCI|Uniform Concept Identifier]]s (UCI)<br />
**Compound UW's are represented as UCI's combined with [[Universal Attribute]]s<br />
**Complex UW's are represented as a sub-graph (i.e., a UNL sentence) made of UCI's interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
*Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UWs are always represented between "double quotes", and observe the source language spelling practices (concerning, for instance, capitalization). For the time being, they are also expected to be transliterated in Roman script.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
{|align="center" border="1" cellpadding="5"<br />
|+Examples of UW's<br />
!align="center"|Type<br />
!align="center"|Concept<br/>(in English)<br />
!align="center"|Lexicalization<br />(in English)<br />
!align="center"|UW<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Simple UW<br />
|align="center"|above average<br />
|align="center"|big<br />
|align="center"|301382086<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Compound UW<br />
|align="center"|comparative of above average<br />
|align="center"|bigger<br />
|align="center"|301382086.@more<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Complex UW<br />
|align="center"|affix a stamp to<br />
|align="center"|stamp<br />
|align="center"|obj(201356370,106796119)<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Temporary UW<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|"UNDL Foundation"<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Categories of UW's ==<br />
<br />
Permanent UW's are classified in four different categories, depending on their semantic values:<br />
<br />
;Lexical Category (LEX)<br />
*Adjectival UW's (LEX=J) designate attributes. <br />
*Adverbial UW's (LEX=A) designate circumstances.<br />
*Nominal UW's (LEX=N) designate things.<br />
*Verbal UW's (LEX=V) designate occurrence or performance of an action, or the existence of a state or condition.<br />
<br />
<br />
These categories are semantically-based. They are related to the UW's and are not oriented to any particular language. In that sense, adjectival UW's (such as "300217728" = "delighting the senses or exciting intellectual or emotional admiration") tend to be associated to English adjectives ("beautiful"), but they can also be realised as prepositional phrases ("with beauty"), verbal phrases ("possessing beauty"), etc.<br />
<br />
== Pro-UW's ==<br />
The UNL representation is expected to be as semantically saturated as possible, and deictics are supposed to be substituted during the UNLization process. In that sense, ellipses and natural language pro-forms (such as "he", "she", "it", "they" etc.) are expected to be replaced by their corresponding antecedents. In many cases, however, it is not possible to find a substitute for words requiring information that is not available inside natural language texts. In these cases, we use pro-UWs, which are represented by the null UW "00" combined with attributes, when applicable. The main cases are:<br />
*'''Exophora''', which is the reference to something that is not inside the text. This is the case of personal pronouns (such as "I", "you", "we" etc.) for which there is no antecedent in the text (i.e., which refer directly to the context of utterance). These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the person attributes (@1, for first person singular; @2, for second person singular; @3, for third person singular; @1.@pl, for first person plural; @2.@pl, for second person plural; and @3.@pl, for third person plural)<br />
*'''Indefinite pronouns''' (such as "none", "anyone", "everything" etc.), which refer to general categories of people or things. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by determiner attributes ("none" = "00.@no", "anyone" = "00.@any.@person", "everything" = "00.@every.@thing" etc.).<br />
*'''Interrogative pronouns''' (such as "who", "whom", "where" etc.), which refer to omitted constituents of the syntactic structure. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the attribute "@wh" ("who" = "00.@wh", "whom" = "00.@wh", "where" = "00.@wh" etc.). The difference between them is determined by the relation in which they appear: "00.@wh" is to be interpreted as "who" when the target argument of an "agt" (agent) relation; as "when" when the target argument of a "tim" (time) relation; as a "where" when the target argument of a "plc" (place) relation; and so on.<br />
*'''Interjections''' (such as "Ouch!", "Yeah!", "Shhh!" etc.), when used in isolation to express an emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker. These UWs are always represented by the null UW "00" followed by an emotional attribute (@anger, @pain etc).<br />
*'''Ellipses''', when cannot be replaced by any antecedent, are represented by the null UW "00" without any specific attribute: "To be or not to be?", for instance, should be represented either as "aoj(exist,00)" or "aoj(00,00)", depending on the interpretation ("to exist or not to exist" or "to be that or not to be that", respectively). because the necessary subject is missing and cannot be linked to any particular referent.<br />
It is important to stress that all cases above refer to situations where the semantic content cannot be fully saturated. Whenever possible, pro-forms and ellipses are expected to be replaced by their referents. For instance, the pro-UW "00.@3" is not supposed to be used in the case of "Peter said that he will not come", if we are sure that "he" is "Peter". In this case, this sentence is expected to be represented as "Peter(i) said that Peter(i) will not come". It should also be stressed that, in the UNL approach, pronouns should be differentiated from determiners. The word "which" in "which is that?" is an interrogative pronoun and should be represented, therefore, by the pro-UW "00.@wh", if we cannot determine to what we are referring to; but the word "which" in "which book is that?" is a determiner, to be represented as an attribute (.@wh) assigned to "book" ("book.@wh").<br />
<br />
== Proper UW's ==<br />
Most named entities (names of people, of places, of brands etc.) are represented as temporary UW's, because it would not be feasible to include them all in the [[UNL Dictionary]]. Nevertheless, some named entities of widespread use (such as "England", "William Shakespeare", "Romeo and Juliet", "Romeo" etc.) have been already included in the UNL Dictionary and are treated as permanent UW's. Our current criteria is the Wikipedia. If a proper name is defined as an entry in the Wikipedia, then it should be defined as a permanent UW and included in the [[UNL Dictionary|UNL Unabridged Dictionary]].<br />
<br />
== Lexical Databases ==<br />
''Main article: [[Lexica]]''<br />
<br />
UW's are grouped in several different lexical databases:<br />
*The [[UNL Dictionary]] is a flat list of UW's with the corresponding semantic features. It is divided into three different nested dictionaries: the UNL Core Dictionary, the UNL Abridged Dictionary and the UNL Unabridged Dictionary. The UNL Core Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are supposed to be lexicalized in all languages; the UNL Abridged Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are lexicalized in at least two language families (and includes therefore the UNL Core Dictionary); the UNL Unabridged Dictionary, which contains the UNL Abridged Dictionary, brings the whole sent of permanent UW's (i.e., the concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language). <br />
*The [[UNL Knowledge Base]] is a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL. Differently from the UNL Dictionary, which brings only general features (such as lexical category, semantic class, abstractness, cardinality, etc.), the UNL KB represents the intension (the meaning) of each UW. In the UNL KB, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" is linked to the UW's "domesticated", "carnivorous", "mammal", etc. <br />
*The [[UNL Ontology]] is a part of the UNL Knowledge Base. It is a network where UW's are interconnected by the ontological relations of UNL, i.e., "is-a-kind-of" ("icl") and "is-an-instance-of" ("iof").<br />
*The [[UNL Memory]] is also a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL, but, differently from the UNL Knowledge Base, which brings the intension of a UW, the UNL Memory brings its extension, i.e., the set of instances of a UW. In the UNL Memory, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" may be the agent of the UW "to bite", the object of the UW "to eat", the instrument of the UW "to chase", etc.<br />
<br />
== How to create a UW ==<br />
See the instructions at [[How to create a UW]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Words&diff=16736Universal Words2025-10-20T19:54:48Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Categories of UW's */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Words''', or simply '''UW's''', are the words of UNL, and correspond to nodes - to be interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]] - in a UNL graph. <br />
<br />
== Definition == <br />
The basic assumption of the UNL approach is that the information conveyed by natural languages can be formally represented through a [[semantic network]] made of three different types of discrete semantic units: Universal Words, [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]]. The Universal Words (UW's) are the nodes in the graph, to be interlinked by relations and specified by attributes. They correspond to semantic discrete units conveyed by natural language open lexical categories (noun, verb, adjective and adverb). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) is represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages.<br />
<br />
== The universality of UW's ==<br />
As the name indicates, Universal Words are expected to be "universal". This does not mean that they represent a sort of common lexical denominator to all languages or a semantic primitive. The concept of "[[universal|universality]]", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all", and Universal Words depict concepts that may range from absolutely global to absolutely local, and even temporary. They are "universal" in the sense that they are uniform identifiers to the entities defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]], which is expected to map everything that we know about the world, and that is used to assign translatability to any concept. <br />
<br />
UW's may represent concepts that are believed to be lexicalized<ref>i.e., consolidated as a single indivisible lexical unit.</ref>in most languages (such as "cause to die"); concepts that are lexicalized only in a few languages (such as "to execute someone by suffocation so as to leave the body intact and suitable for dissection"); concepts that are lexicalized in one single language (such as "a person who is ready to forgive any transgression a first time and then to tolerate it for a second time, but never for a third time"); and concepts that are not lexicalized in any language (such as "women that normally wear red hats and white shoes in big theaters"). The universality of a UW does not come from the type of concept that it represents, but from the way it does that: the UW provides a method for processing the concept, so that any natural language would be able to deal with it, either as a single node, if lexicalized, or as a hyper-node (i.e., a sub-graph), otherwise.<br />
<br />
== Permanent UW's and Temporary UW's ==<br />
UW's can be permanent or temporary.<br />
;Permanent UW's<br />
:Permanent UW's are included in the [[UNL Dictionary]] and correspond to concepts that have been already lexicalized in at least one language (i.e., which are conceived as single lexical items and included therefore in natural language dictionaries). They can be simple, compound or complex (see below).<br />
;Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UW's are words that:<br />
:*Represent concepts or entities that are still in process of lexicalization ("googlers", "twittered");<br />
:*Are too specific to be included in the UNL Dictionary ("Universal Networking Digital Language Foundation", "Léon Werth"); or<br />
:*Are not translatable ("3.14159", "H<sub>2</sub>O", "www.undlfoundation.org"); <br />
<br />
== Simple UW's, Compound UW's and Complex UW's ==<br />
Permanent UWs can be simple, compound or complex. <br />
<br />
;Simple UW's<br />
:A simple UW is an isolated node in the UNL graph. It is used when the UW represents a concept that is not compositional, i.e., that cannot be fully reduced to constituent concepts, such as "big" (> "above average"), "put" (> "cause to be in a certain state") or "stamp" (> "a small adhesive token"). <br />
<br />
;Compound UW's<br />
:A compound UW is an isolated node combined with attributes. It is used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of an existing simple UW and a UNL attribute, such as the concept conveyed by the English word "bigger", which can be represented simply as the UW corresponding to "big" specified by the degree attribute "@more".<br />
<br />
;Complex UW's<br />
:A complex UW is a hyper-node, i.e., a sub-graph inside the UNL graph. As graphs, complex UWs follow the structure defined for [[UNL Sentences]]. They are used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of existing UW's, relations and attributes, such as in the case of the concept conveyed by the English word "to stamp" (= "affix a stamp to"), which could be represented, in UNL, as the graph corresponding to the definition "affix a stamp to".<br />
<br />
== Principles ==<br />
;Sense<br />
:UW's represent sense and not reference. UW's are related to the intension (sense, meaning, connotation) rather than to the extension (reference, denotation) of linguistic expressions. The expressions "morning star" and "evening star", which are said to have the same reference (the planet Venus), must be necessarily represented by different UW's, because they convey different "modes of presentation" of the same object, i.e., have different senses: "the last star to disappear in the morning" and "the first star to appear in the evening", respectively.<br />
;Productivity<br />
:UW's must correspond to and only to contents conveyed by natural language '''open lexical categories''' (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) should be represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages. The only exception to this principle are the pro-forms, which are represented by a special type of UW, the pro-UW, or null UW (see below).<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:Simple UW's must correspond to and only to contents expressed by non-compositional lexical items, i.e., words and multiword expressions that cannot be fully reduced to the combination of existing UW's, attributes and relations. Compound and complex UW's must be used when the content can be fully determined by the meanings of constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them.<br />
;Comprehensiveness<br />
:UW's are "universal" in the sense that they constitute the lexicon of a "universal language", i.e., that they convey ideas that can be expressed in each and every language. They are not universal in the sense that they are lexicalized in all languages. In that sense, UW's are not to be considered semantic primitives, nor should represent only common concepts. The repertoire of UW's is supposed to be as comprehensive as the set of different individual concepts depicted by different cultures, no matter how specific they are. Furthermore, the lexicon of UNL constitutes an open set, subject to permanent increase with new UW's, as UNL is supposed to incessantly incorporate new cultures and cultural changes. <br />
;Universality<br />
:Permanent UW's may represent concepts with different degrees of universality and are stored accordingly in three nested lexical databases, which are subdivisions of the [[UNL Dictionary]]:<br />
:*The UNL Core Dictionary contains only permanent simple UW's that represent concepts that are (presumably) lexicalized in all languages<br />
:*The UNL Abridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least two different language families <br />
:*The UNL Unabridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language<br />
;Non-Ambiguity and Non-Redundancy<br />
:A given sense may not be represented by more than one UW, and one UW may not have more than one sense. There is no homonymy, synonymy or polysemy in UNL. <br />
;Simplicity<br />
:Simple UW's are names (and not definitions) for senses. The simple UW does not bring much (or any) information about its sense. It is just a label. Any information concerning the sense is expected to be provided by the three different lexical databases available inside the UNL framework: the [[UNL Dictionary]], the [[UNL Knowledge Base]] and the [[UNL Memory]].<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
Universal Words are represented as follows:<br />
*Permanent UW's<br />
**Simple UW's are represented as [[UCI|Uniform Concept Identifier]]s (UCI)<br />
**Compound UW's are represented as UCI's combined with [[Universal Attribute]]s<br />
**Complex UW's are represented as a sub-graph (i.e., a UNL sentence) made of UCI's interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
*Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UWs are always represented between "double quotes", and observe the source language spelling practices (concerning, for instance, capitalization). For the time being, they are also expected to be transliterated in Roman script.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
{|align="center" border="1" cellpadding="5"<br />
|+Examples of UW's<br />
!align="center"|Type<br />
!align="center"|Concept<br/>(in English)<br />
!align="center"|Lexicalization<br />(in English)<br />
!align="center"|UW<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Simple UW<br />
|align="center"|above average<br />
|align="center"|big<br />
|align="center"|301382086<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Compound UW<br />
|align="center"|comparative of above average<br />
|align="center"|bigger<br />
|align="center"|301382086.@more<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Complex UW<br />
|align="center"|affix a stamp to<br />
|align="center"|stamp<br />
|align="center"|obj(201356370,106796119)<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Temporary UW<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|"UNDL Foundation"<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Categories of UW's ==<br />
<br />
Permanent UW's are classified in four different categories, depending on their semantic values:<br />
<br />
;Lexical Category (LEX)<br />
*Adjectival UW's (J) designate attributes. <br />
*Adverbial UW's (A) designate circumstances.<br />
*Nominal UW's (N) designate things.<br />
*Verbal UW's (V) designate occurrence or performance of an action, or the existence of a state or condition.<br />
<br />
<br />
These categories are semantically-based. They are related to the UW's and are not oriented to any particular language. In that sense, adjectival UW's (such as "300217728" = "delighting the senses or exciting intellectual or emotional admiration") tend to be associated to English adjectives ("beautiful"), but they can also be realised as prepositional phrases ("with beauty"), verbal phrases ("possessing beauty"), etc.<br />
<br />
== Pro-UW's ==<br />
The UNL representation is expected to be as semantically saturated as possible, and deictics are supposed to be substituted during the UNLization process. In that sense, ellipses and natural language pro-forms (such as "he", "she", "it", "they" etc.) are expected to be replaced by their corresponding antecedents. In many cases, however, it is not possible to find a substitute for words requiring information that is not available inside natural language texts. In these cases, we use pro-UWs, which are represented by the null UW "00" combined with attributes, when applicable. The main cases are:<br />
*'''Exophora''', which is the reference to something that is not inside the text. This is the case of personal pronouns (such as "I", "you", "we" etc.) for which there is no antecedent in the text (i.e., which refer directly to the context of utterance). These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the person attributes (@1, for first person singular; @2, for second person singular; @3, for third person singular; @1.@pl, for first person plural; @2.@pl, for second person plural; and @3.@pl, for third person plural)<br />
*'''Indefinite pronouns''' (such as "none", "anyone", "everything" etc.), which refer to general categories of people or things. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by determiner attributes ("none" = "00.@no", "anyone" = "00.@any.@person", "everything" = "00.@every.@thing" etc.).<br />
*'''Interrogative pronouns''' (such as "who", "whom", "where" etc.), which refer to omitted constituents of the syntactic structure. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the attribute "@wh" ("who" = "00.@wh", "whom" = "00.@wh", "where" = "00.@wh" etc.). The difference between them is determined by the relation in which they appear: "00.@wh" is to be interpreted as "who" when the target argument of an "agt" (agent) relation; as "when" when the target argument of a "tim" (time) relation; as a "where" when the target argument of a "plc" (place) relation; and so on.<br />
*'''Interjections''' (such as "Ouch!", "Yeah!", "Shhh!" etc.), when used in isolation to express an emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker. These UWs are always represented by the null UW "00" followed by an emotional attribute (@anger, @pain etc).<br />
*'''Ellipses''', when cannot be replaced by any antecedent, are represented by the null UW "00" without any specific attribute: "To be or not to be?", for instance, should be represented either as "aoj(exist,00)" or "aoj(00,00)", depending on the interpretation ("to exist or not to exist" or "to be that or not to be that", respectively). because the necessary subject is missing and cannot be linked to any particular referent.<br />
It is important to stress that all cases above refer to situations where the semantic content cannot be fully saturated. Whenever possible, pro-forms and ellipses are expected to be replaced by their referents. For instance, the pro-UW "00.@3" is not supposed to be used in the case of "Peter said that he will not come", if we are sure that "he" is "Peter". In this case, this sentence is expected to be represented as "Peter(i) said that Peter(i) will not come". It should also be stressed that, in the UNL approach, pronouns should be differentiated from determiners. The word "which" in "which is that?" is an interrogative pronoun and should be represented, therefore, by the pro-UW "00.@wh", if we cannot determine to what we are referring to; but the word "which" in "which book is that?" is a determiner, to be represented as an attribute (.@wh) assigned to "book" ("book.@wh").<br />
<br />
== Proper UW's ==<br />
Most named entities (names of people, of places, of brands etc.) are represented as temporary UW's, because it would not be feasible to include them all in the [[UNL Dictionary]]. Nevertheless, some named entities of widespread use (such as "England", "William Shakespeare", "Romeo and Juliet", "Romeo" etc.) have been already included in the UNL Dictionary and are treated as permanent UW's. Our current criteria is the Wikipedia. If a proper name is defined as an entry in the Wikipedia, then it should be defined as a permanent UW and included in the [[UNL Dictionary|UNL Unabridged Dictionary]].<br />
<br />
== Lexical Databases ==<br />
''Main article: [[Lexica]]''<br />
<br />
UW's are grouped in several different lexical databases:<br />
*The [[UNL Dictionary]] is a flat list of UW's with the corresponding semantic features. It is divided into three different nested dictionaries: the UNL Core Dictionary, the UNL Abridged Dictionary and the UNL Unabridged Dictionary. The UNL Core Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are supposed to be lexicalized in all languages; the UNL Abridged Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are lexicalized in at least two language families (and includes therefore the UNL Core Dictionary); the UNL Unabridged Dictionary, which contains the UNL Abridged Dictionary, brings the whole sent of permanent UW's (i.e., the concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language). <br />
*The [[UNL Knowledge Base]] is a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL. Differently from the UNL Dictionary, which brings only general features (such as lexical category, semantic class, abstractness, cardinality, etc.), the UNL KB represents the intension (the meaning) of each UW. In the UNL KB, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" is linked to the UW's "domesticated", "carnivorous", "mammal", etc. <br />
*The [[UNL Ontology]] is a part of the UNL Knowledge Base. It is a network where UW's are interconnected by the ontological relations of UNL, i.e., "is-a-kind-of" ("icl") and "is-an-instance-of" ("iof").<br />
*The [[UNL Memory]] is also a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL, but, differently from the UNL Knowledge Base, which brings the intension of a UW, the UNL Memory brings its extension, i.e., the set of instances of a UW. In the UNL Memory, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" may be the agent of the UW "to bite", the object of the UW "to eat", the instrument of the UW "to chase", etc.<br />
<br />
== How to create a UW ==<br />
See the instructions at [[How to create a UW]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Words&diff=16735Universal Words2025-10-20T15:54:31Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Categories of UW's */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Words''', or simply '''UW's''', are the words of UNL, and correspond to nodes - to be interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]] - in a UNL graph. <br />
<br />
== Definition == <br />
The basic assumption of the UNL approach is that the information conveyed by natural languages can be formally represented through a [[semantic network]] made of three different types of discrete semantic units: Universal Words, [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]]. The Universal Words (UW's) are the nodes in the graph, to be interlinked by relations and specified by attributes. They correspond to semantic discrete units conveyed by natural language open lexical categories (noun, verb, adjective and adverb). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) is represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages.<br />
<br />
== The universality of UW's ==<br />
As the name indicates, Universal Words are expected to be "universal". This does not mean that they represent a sort of common lexical denominator to all languages or a semantic primitive. The concept of "[[universal|universality]]", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all", and Universal Words depict concepts that may range from absolutely global to absolutely local, and even temporary. They are "universal" in the sense that they are uniform identifiers to the entities defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]], which is expected to map everything that we know about the world, and that is used to assign translatability to any concept. <br />
<br />
UW's may represent concepts that are believed to be lexicalized<ref>i.e., consolidated as a single indivisible lexical unit.</ref>in most languages (such as "cause to die"); concepts that are lexicalized only in a few languages (such as "to execute someone by suffocation so as to leave the body intact and suitable for dissection"); concepts that are lexicalized in one single language (such as "a person who is ready to forgive any transgression a first time and then to tolerate it for a second time, but never for a third time"); and concepts that are not lexicalized in any language (such as "women that normally wear red hats and white shoes in big theaters"). The universality of a UW does not come from the type of concept that it represents, but from the way it does that: the UW provides a method for processing the concept, so that any natural language would be able to deal with it, either as a single node, if lexicalized, or as a hyper-node (i.e., a sub-graph), otherwise.<br />
<br />
== Permanent UW's and Temporary UW's ==<br />
UW's can be permanent or temporary.<br />
;Permanent UW's<br />
:Permanent UW's are included in the [[UNL Dictionary]] and correspond to concepts that have been already lexicalized in at least one language (i.e., which are conceived as single lexical items and included therefore in natural language dictionaries). They can be simple, compound or complex (see below).<br />
;Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UW's are words that:<br />
:*Represent concepts or entities that are still in process of lexicalization ("googlers", "twittered");<br />
:*Are too specific to be included in the UNL Dictionary ("Universal Networking Digital Language Foundation", "Léon Werth"); or<br />
:*Are not translatable ("3.14159", "H<sub>2</sub>O", "www.undlfoundation.org"); <br />
<br />
== Simple UW's, Compound UW's and Complex UW's ==<br />
Permanent UWs can be simple, compound or complex. <br />
<br />
;Simple UW's<br />
:A simple UW is an isolated node in the UNL graph. It is used when the UW represents a concept that is not compositional, i.e., that cannot be fully reduced to constituent concepts, such as "big" (> "above average"), "put" (> "cause to be in a certain state") or "stamp" (> "a small adhesive token"). <br />
<br />
;Compound UW's<br />
:A compound UW is an isolated node combined with attributes. It is used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of an existing simple UW and a UNL attribute, such as the concept conveyed by the English word "bigger", which can be represented simply as the UW corresponding to "big" specified by the degree attribute "@more".<br />
<br />
;Complex UW's<br />
:A complex UW is a hyper-node, i.e., a sub-graph inside the UNL graph. As graphs, complex UWs follow the structure defined for [[UNL Sentences]]. They are used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of existing UW's, relations and attributes, such as in the case of the concept conveyed by the English word "to stamp" (= "affix a stamp to"), which could be represented, in UNL, as the graph corresponding to the definition "affix a stamp to".<br />
<br />
== Principles ==<br />
;Sense<br />
:UW's represent sense and not reference. UW's are related to the intension (sense, meaning, connotation) rather than to the extension (reference, denotation) of linguistic expressions. The expressions "morning star" and "evening star", which are said to have the same reference (the planet Venus), must be necessarily represented by different UW's, because they convey different "modes of presentation" of the same object, i.e., have different senses: "the last star to disappear in the morning" and "the first star to appear in the evening", respectively.<br />
;Productivity<br />
:UW's must correspond to and only to contents conveyed by natural language '''open lexical categories''' (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) should be represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages. The only exception to this principle are the pro-forms, which are represented by a special type of UW, the pro-UW, or null UW (see below).<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:Simple UW's must correspond to and only to contents expressed by non-compositional lexical items, i.e., words and multiword expressions that cannot be fully reduced to the combination of existing UW's, attributes and relations. Compound and complex UW's must be used when the content can be fully determined by the meanings of constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them.<br />
;Comprehensiveness<br />
:UW's are "universal" in the sense that they constitute the lexicon of a "universal language", i.e., that they convey ideas that can be expressed in each and every language. They are not universal in the sense that they are lexicalized in all languages. In that sense, UW's are not to be considered semantic primitives, nor should represent only common concepts. The repertoire of UW's is supposed to be as comprehensive as the set of different individual concepts depicted by different cultures, no matter how specific they are. Furthermore, the lexicon of UNL constitutes an open set, subject to permanent increase with new UW's, as UNL is supposed to incessantly incorporate new cultures and cultural changes. <br />
;Universality<br />
:Permanent UW's may represent concepts with different degrees of universality and are stored accordingly in three nested lexical databases, which are subdivisions of the [[UNL Dictionary]]:<br />
:*The UNL Core Dictionary contains only permanent simple UW's that represent concepts that are (presumably) lexicalized in all languages<br />
:*The UNL Abridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least two different language families <br />
:*The UNL Unabridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language<br />
;Non-Ambiguity and Non-Redundancy<br />
:A given sense may not be represented by more than one UW, and one UW may not have more than one sense. There is no homonymy, synonymy or polysemy in UNL. <br />
;Simplicity<br />
:Simple UW's are names (and not definitions) for senses. The simple UW does not bring much (or any) information about its sense. It is just a label. Any information concerning the sense is expected to be provided by the three different lexical databases available inside the UNL framework: the [[UNL Dictionary]], the [[UNL Knowledge Base]] and the [[UNL Memory]].<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
Universal Words are represented as follows:<br />
*Permanent UW's<br />
**Simple UW's are represented as [[UCI|Uniform Concept Identifier]]s (UCI)<br />
**Compound UW's are represented as UCI's combined with [[Universal Attribute]]s<br />
**Complex UW's are represented as a sub-graph (i.e., a UNL sentence) made of UCI's interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
*Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UWs are always represented between "double quotes", and observe the source language spelling practices (concerning, for instance, capitalization). For the time being, they are also expected to be transliterated in Roman script.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
{|align="center" border="1" cellpadding="5"<br />
|+Examples of UW's<br />
!align="center"|Type<br />
!align="center"|Concept<br/>(in English)<br />
!align="center"|Lexicalization<br />(in English)<br />
!align="center"|UW<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Simple UW<br />
|align="center"|above average<br />
|align="center"|big<br />
|align="center"|301382086<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Compound UW<br />
|align="center"|comparative of above average<br />
|align="center"|bigger<br />
|align="center"|301382086.@more<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Complex UW<br />
|align="center"|affix a stamp to<br />
|align="center"|stamp<br />
|align="center"|obj(201356370,106796119)<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Temporary UW<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|"UNDL Foundation"<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Categories of UW's ==<br />
<br />
Permanent UW's are classified in four different categories, depending on their semantic values:<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|openlevels=0|root=Lexical Category (LEX)|<br />
**Adjectival UW's (J) designate attributes. <br />
**Adverbial UW's (A) designate circumstances.<br />
**Nominal UW's (N) designate things.<br />
**Verbal UW's (V) designate occurrence or performance of an action, or the existence of a state or condition.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
These categories are semantically-based. They are related to the UW's and are not oriented to any particular language. In that sense, adjectival UW's (such as "300217728" = "delighting the senses or exciting intellectual or emotional admiration") tend to be associated to English adjectives ("beautiful"), but they can also be realised as prepositional phrases ("with beauty"), verbal phrases ("possessing beauty"), etc.<br />
<br />
== Pro-UW's ==<br />
The UNL representation is expected to be as semantically saturated as possible, and deictics are supposed to be substituted during the UNLization process. In that sense, ellipses and natural language pro-forms (such as "he", "she", "it", "they" etc.) are expected to be replaced by their corresponding antecedents. In many cases, however, it is not possible to find a substitute for words requiring information that is not available inside natural language texts. In these cases, we use pro-UWs, which are represented by the null UW "00" combined with attributes, when applicable. The main cases are:<br />
*'''Exophora''', which is the reference to something that is not inside the text. This is the case of personal pronouns (such as "I", "you", "we" etc.) for which there is no antecedent in the text (i.e., which refer directly to the context of utterance). These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the person attributes (@1, for first person singular; @2, for second person singular; @3, for third person singular; @1.@pl, for first person plural; @2.@pl, for second person plural; and @3.@pl, for third person plural)<br />
*'''Indefinite pronouns''' (such as "none", "anyone", "everything" etc.), which refer to general categories of people or things. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by determiner attributes ("none" = "00.@no", "anyone" = "00.@any.@person", "everything" = "00.@every.@thing" etc.).<br />
*'''Interrogative pronouns''' (such as "who", "whom", "where" etc.), which refer to omitted constituents of the syntactic structure. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the attribute "@wh" ("who" = "00.@wh", "whom" = "00.@wh", "where" = "00.@wh" etc.). The difference between them is determined by the relation in which they appear: "00.@wh" is to be interpreted as "who" when the target argument of an "agt" (agent) relation; as "when" when the target argument of a "tim" (time) relation; as a "where" when the target argument of a "plc" (place) relation; and so on.<br />
*'''Interjections''' (such as "Ouch!", "Yeah!", "Shhh!" etc.), when used in isolation to express an emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker. These UWs are always represented by the null UW "00" followed by an emotional attribute (@anger, @pain etc).<br />
*'''Ellipses''', when cannot be replaced by any antecedent, are represented by the null UW "00" without any specific attribute: "To be or not to be?", for instance, should be represented either as "aoj(exist,00)" or "aoj(00,00)", depending on the interpretation ("to exist or not to exist" or "to be that or not to be that", respectively). because the necessary subject is missing and cannot be linked to any particular referent.<br />
It is important to stress that all cases above refer to situations where the semantic content cannot be fully saturated. Whenever possible, pro-forms and ellipses are expected to be replaced by their referents. For instance, the pro-UW "00.@3" is not supposed to be used in the case of "Peter said that he will not come", if we are sure that "he" is "Peter". In this case, this sentence is expected to be represented as "Peter(i) said that Peter(i) will not come". It should also be stressed that, in the UNL approach, pronouns should be differentiated from determiners. The word "which" in "which is that?" is an interrogative pronoun and should be represented, therefore, by the pro-UW "00.@wh", if we cannot determine to what we are referring to; but the word "which" in "which book is that?" is a determiner, to be represented as an attribute (.@wh) assigned to "book" ("book.@wh").<br />
<br />
== Proper UW's ==<br />
Most named entities (names of people, of places, of brands etc.) are represented as temporary UW's, because it would not be feasible to include them all in the [[UNL Dictionary]]. Nevertheless, some named entities of widespread use (such as "England", "William Shakespeare", "Romeo and Juliet", "Romeo" etc.) have been already included in the UNL Dictionary and are treated as permanent UW's. Our current criteria is the Wikipedia. If a proper name is defined as an entry in the Wikipedia, then it should be defined as a permanent UW and included in the [[UNL Dictionary|UNL Unabridged Dictionary]].<br />
<br />
== Lexical Databases ==<br />
''Main article: [[Lexica]]''<br />
<br />
UW's are grouped in several different lexical databases:<br />
*The [[UNL Dictionary]] is a flat list of UW's with the corresponding semantic features. It is divided into three different nested dictionaries: the UNL Core Dictionary, the UNL Abridged Dictionary and the UNL Unabridged Dictionary. The UNL Core Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are supposed to be lexicalized in all languages; the UNL Abridged Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are lexicalized in at least two language families (and includes therefore the UNL Core Dictionary); the UNL Unabridged Dictionary, which contains the UNL Abridged Dictionary, brings the whole sent of permanent UW's (i.e., the concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language). <br />
*The [[UNL Knowledge Base]] is a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL. Differently from the UNL Dictionary, which brings only general features (such as lexical category, semantic class, abstractness, cardinality, etc.), the UNL KB represents the intension (the meaning) of each UW. In the UNL KB, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" is linked to the UW's "domesticated", "carnivorous", "mammal", etc. <br />
*The [[UNL Ontology]] is a part of the UNL Knowledge Base. It is a network where UW's are interconnected by the ontological relations of UNL, i.e., "is-a-kind-of" ("icl") and "is-an-instance-of" ("iof").<br />
*The [[UNL Memory]] is also a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL, but, differently from the UNL Knowledge Base, which brings the intension of a UW, the UNL Memory brings its extension, i.e., the set of instances of a UW. In the UNL Memory, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" may be the agent of the UW "to bite", the object of the UW "to eat", the instrument of the UW "to chase", etc.<br />
<br />
== How to create a UW ==<br />
See the instructions at [[How to create a UW]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=16734MediaWiki:Common.css2025-10-20T15:45:17Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
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<div>/* Esconde o texto do site no logo */<br />
.mw-wiki-logo::after {<br />
content: "";<br />
}<br />
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/* Ajusta tamanho do logo se necessário */<br />
.mw-wiki-logo {<br />
background-size: contain;<br />
width: 200px; /* ajuste conforme seu logo */<br />
height: 100px; /* ajuste conforme seu logo */<br />
text-indent: -9999px; /* esconde o texto do link */<br />
display: block;<br />
}<br />
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background: none;<br />
border: none;<br />
font-size: 12px;<br />
}<br />
ul.fancytree-container {<br />
outline: 0;<br />
border: none;<br />
overflow: hidden;<br />
}<br />
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display: none;<br />
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span.fancytree-title {<br />
cursor: default;<br />
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span.fancytree-title a {<br />
color: black;<br />
}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Words&diff=16733Universal Words2025-10-20T15:28:39Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Categories of UW's */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Words''', or simply '''UW's''', are the words of UNL, and correspond to nodes - to be interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]] - in a UNL graph. <br />
<br />
== Definition == <br />
The basic assumption of the UNL approach is that the information conveyed by natural languages can be formally represented through a [[semantic network]] made of three different types of discrete semantic units: Universal Words, [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]]. The Universal Words (UW's) are the nodes in the graph, to be interlinked by relations and specified by attributes. They correspond to semantic discrete units conveyed by natural language open lexical categories (noun, verb, adjective and adverb). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) is represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages.<br />
<br />
== The universality of UW's ==<br />
As the name indicates, Universal Words are expected to be "universal". This does not mean that they represent a sort of common lexical denominator to all languages or a semantic primitive. The concept of "[[universal|universality]]", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all", and Universal Words depict concepts that may range from absolutely global to absolutely local, and even temporary. They are "universal" in the sense that they are uniform identifiers to the entities defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]], which is expected to map everything that we know about the world, and that is used to assign translatability to any concept. <br />
<br />
UW's may represent concepts that are believed to be lexicalized<ref>i.e., consolidated as a single indivisible lexical unit.</ref>in most languages (such as "cause to die"); concepts that are lexicalized only in a few languages (such as "to execute someone by suffocation so as to leave the body intact and suitable for dissection"); concepts that are lexicalized in one single language (such as "a person who is ready to forgive any transgression a first time and then to tolerate it for a second time, but never for a third time"); and concepts that are not lexicalized in any language (such as "women that normally wear red hats and white shoes in big theaters"). The universality of a UW does not come from the type of concept that it represents, but from the way it does that: the UW provides a method for processing the concept, so that any natural language would be able to deal with it, either as a single node, if lexicalized, or as a hyper-node (i.e., a sub-graph), otherwise.<br />
<br />
== Permanent UW's and Temporary UW's ==<br />
UW's can be permanent or temporary.<br />
;Permanent UW's<br />
:Permanent UW's are included in the [[UNL Dictionary]] and correspond to concepts that have been already lexicalized in at least one language (i.e., which are conceived as single lexical items and included therefore in natural language dictionaries). They can be simple, compound or complex (see below).<br />
;Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UW's are words that:<br />
:*Represent concepts or entities that are still in process of lexicalization ("googlers", "twittered");<br />
:*Are too specific to be included in the UNL Dictionary ("Universal Networking Digital Language Foundation", "Léon Werth"); or<br />
:*Are not translatable ("3.14159", "H<sub>2</sub>O", "www.undlfoundation.org"); <br />
<br />
== Simple UW's, Compound UW's and Complex UW's ==<br />
Permanent UWs can be simple, compound or complex. <br />
<br />
;Simple UW's<br />
:A simple UW is an isolated node in the UNL graph. It is used when the UW represents a concept that is not compositional, i.e., that cannot be fully reduced to constituent concepts, such as "big" (> "above average"), "put" (> "cause to be in a certain state") or "stamp" (> "a small adhesive token"). <br />
<br />
;Compound UW's<br />
:A compound UW is an isolated node combined with attributes. It is used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of an existing simple UW and a UNL attribute, such as the concept conveyed by the English word "bigger", which can be represented simply as the UW corresponding to "big" specified by the degree attribute "@more".<br />
<br />
;Complex UW's<br />
:A complex UW is a hyper-node, i.e., a sub-graph inside the UNL graph. As graphs, complex UWs follow the structure defined for [[UNL Sentences]]. They are used when the concept can be fully derived from the combination of existing UW's, relations and attributes, such as in the case of the concept conveyed by the English word "to stamp" (= "affix a stamp to"), which could be represented, in UNL, as the graph corresponding to the definition "affix a stamp to".<br />
<br />
== Principles ==<br />
;Sense<br />
:UW's represent sense and not reference. UW's are related to the intension (sense, meaning, connotation) rather than to the extension (reference, denotation) of linguistic expressions. The expressions "morning star" and "evening star", which are said to have the same reference (the planet Venus), must be necessarily represented by different UW's, because they convey different "modes of presentation" of the same object, i.e., have different senses: "the last star to disappear in the morning" and "the first star to appear in the evening", respectively.<br />
;Productivity<br />
:UW's must correspond to and only to contents conveyed by natural language '''open lexical categories''' (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs). Any other semantic content (such as the ones conveyed by articles, prepositions, conjunctions etc.) should be represented as attributes or relations. This criterion is not language-biased: if a given semantic value proves to be conveyed, in any language, by a closed class, it should not be represented as a UW, regardless of its realisation in other languages. The only exception to this principle are the pro-forms, which are represented by a special type of UW, the pro-UW, or null UW (see below).<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:Simple UW's must correspond to and only to contents expressed by non-compositional lexical items, i.e., words and multiword expressions that cannot be fully reduced to the combination of existing UW's, attributes and relations. Compound and complex UW's must be used when the content can be fully determined by the meanings of constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them.<br />
;Comprehensiveness<br />
:UW's are "universal" in the sense that they constitute the lexicon of a "universal language", i.e., that they convey ideas that can be expressed in each and every language. They are not universal in the sense that they are lexicalized in all languages. In that sense, UW's are not to be considered semantic primitives, nor should represent only common concepts. The repertoire of UW's is supposed to be as comprehensive as the set of different individual concepts depicted by different cultures, no matter how specific they are. Furthermore, the lexicon of UNL constitutes an open set, subject to permanent increase with new UW's, as UNL is supposed to incessantly incorporate new cultures and cultural changes. <br />
;Universality<br />
:Permanent UW's may represent concepts with different degrees of universality and are stored accordingly in three nested lexical databases, which are subdivisions of the [[UNL Dictionary]]:<br />
:*The UNL Core Dictionary contains only permanent simple UW's that represent concepts that are (presumably) lexicalized in all languages<br />
:*The UNL Abridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least two different language families <br />
:*The UNL Unabridged Dictionary contains all permanent UW's (simple, compound or complex) that represent concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language<br />
;Non-Ambiguity and Non-Redundancy<br />
:A given sense may not be represented by more than one UW, and one UW may not have more than one sense. There is no homonymy, synonymy or polysemy in UNL. <br />
;Simplicity<br />
:Simple UW's are names (and not definitions) for senses. The simple UW does not bring much (or any) information about its sense. It is just a label. Any information concerning the sense is expected to be provided by the three different lexical databases available inside the UNL framework: the [[UNL Dictionary]], the [[UNL Knowledge Base]] and the [[UNL Memory]].<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
Universal Words are represented as follows:<br />
*Permanent UW's<br />
**Simple UW's are represented as [[UCI|Uniform Concept Identifier]]s (UCI)<br />
**Compound UW's are represented as UCI's combined with [[Universal Attribute]]s<br />
**Complex UW's are represented as a sub-graph (i.e., a UNL sentence) made of UCI's interlinked by [[Universal Relations]] and specified by [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
*Temporary UW's<br />
:Temporary UWs are always represented between "double quotes", and observe the source language spelling practices (concerning, for instance, capitalization). For the time being, they are also expected to be transliterated in Roman script.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
{|align="center" border="1" cellpadding="5"<br />
|+Examples of UW's<br />
!align="center"|Type<br />
!align="center"|Concept<br/>(in English)<br />
!align="center"|Lexicalization<br />(in English)<br />
!align="center"|UW<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Simple UW<br />
|align="center"|above average<br />
|align="center"|big<br />
|align="center"|301382086<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Compound UW<br />
|align="center"|comparative of above average<br />
|align="center"|bigger<br />
|align="center"|301382086.@more<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Complex UW<br />
|align="center"|affix a stamp to<br />
|align="center"|stamp<br />
|align="center"|obj(201356370,106796119)<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"|Temporary UW<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|UNDL Foundation<br />
|align="center"|"UNDL Foundation"<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Categories of UW's ==<br />
<br />
Permanent UW's are classified in four different categories, depending on their semantic values:<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|openlevels=0|root=Lexical Category (LEX)|<br />
**Adjectival UW's (J) designate attributes. <br />
**Adverbial UW's (A) designate circumstances.<br />
**Nominal UW's (N) designate things.<br />
**Verbal UW's (V) designate occurrence or performance of an action, or the existence of a state or condition.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{#tree:<br />
*Item<br />
**[[Sub-item link]]<br />
**Another sub-item<br />
}}<br />
<br />
These categories are semantically-based. They are related to the UW's and are not oriented to any particular language. In that sense, adjectival UW's (such as "300217728" = "delighting the senses or exciting intellectual or emotional admiration") tend to be associated to English adjectives ("beautiful"), but they can also be realised as prepositional phrases ("with beauty"), verbal phrases ("possessing beauty"), etc.<br />
<br />
== Pro-UW's ==<br />
The UNL representation is expected to be as semantically saturated as possible, and deictics are supposed to be substituted during the UNLization process. In that sense, ellipses and natural language pro-forms (such as "he", "she", "it", "they" etc.) are expected to be replaced by their corresponding antecedents. In many cases, however, it is not possible to find a substitute for words requiring information that is not available inside natural language texts. In these cases, we use pro-UWs, which are represented by the null UW "00" combined with attributes, when applicable. The main cases are:<br />
*'''Exophora''', which is the reference to something that is not inside the text. This is the case of personal pronouns (such as "I", "you", "we" etc.) for which there is no antecedent in the text (i.e., which refer directly to the context of utterance). These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the person attributes (@1, for first person singular; @2, for second person singular; @3, for third person singular; @1.@pl, for first person plural; @2.@pl, for second person plural; and @3.@pl, for third person plural)<br />
*'''Indefinite pronouns''' (such as "none", "anyone", "everything" etc.), which refer to general categories of people or things. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by determiner attributes ("none" = "00.@no", "anyone" = "00.@any.@person", "everything" = "00.@every.@thing" etc.).<br />
*'''Interrogative pronouns''' (such as "who", "whom", "where" etc.), which refer to omitted constituents of the syntactic structure. These pronouns are represented by the null UW "00" followed by the attribute "@wh" ("who" = "00.@wh", "whom" = "00.@wh", "where" = "00.@wh" etc.). The difference between them is determined by the relation in which they appear: "00.@wh" is to be interpreted as "who" when the target argument of an "agt" (agent) relation; as "when" when the target argument of a "tim" (time) relation; as a "where" when the target argument of a "plc" (place) relation; and so on.<br />
*'''Interjections''' (such as "Ouch!", "Yeah!", "Shhh!" etc.), when used in isolation to express an emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker. These UWs are always represented by the null UW "00" followed by an emotional attribute (@anger, @pain etc).<br />
*'''Ellipses''', when cannot be replaced by any antecedent, are represented by the null UW "00" without any specific attribute: "To be or not to be?", for instance, should be represented either as "aoj(exist,00)" or "aoj(00,00)", depending on the interpretation ("to exist or not to exist" or "to be that or not to be that", respectively). because the necessary subject is missing and cannot be linked to any particular referent.<br />
It is important to stress that all cases above refer to situations where the semantic content cannot be fully saturated. Whenever possible, pro-forms and ellipses are expected to be replaced by their referents. For instance, the pro-UW "00.@3" is not supposed to be used in the case of "Peter said that he will not come", if we are sure that "he" is "Peter". In this case, this sentence is expected to be represented as "Peter(i) said that Peter(i) will not come". It should also be stressed that, in the UNL approach, pronouns should be differentiated from determiners. The word "which" in "which is that?" is an interrogative pronoun and should be represented, therefore, by the pro-UW "00.@wh", if we cannot determine to what we are referring to; but the word "which" in "which book is that?" is a determiner, to be represented as an attribute (.@wh) assigned to "book" ("book.@wh").<br />
<br />
== Proper UW's ==<br />
Most named entities (names of people, of places, of brands etc.) are represented as temporary UW's, because it would not be feasible to include them all in the [[UNL Dictionary]]. Nevertheless, some named entities of widespread use (such as "England", "William Shakespeare", "Romeo and Juliet", "Romeo" etc.) have been already included in the UNL Dictionary and are treated as permanent UW's. Our current criteria is the Wikipedia. If a proper name is defined as an entry in the Wikipedia, then it should be defined as a permanent UW and included in the [[UNL Dictionary|UNL Unabridged Dictionary]].<br />
<br />
== Lexical Databases ==<br />
''Main article: [[Lexica]]''<br />
<br />
UW's are grouped in several different lexical databases:<br />
*The [[UNL Dictionary]] is a flat list of UW's with the corresponding semantic features. It is divided into three different nested dictionaries: the UNL Core Dictionary, the UNL Abridged Dictionary and the UNL Unabridged Dictionary. The UNL Core Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are supposed to be lexicalized in all languages; the UNL Abridged Dictionary brings permanent UW's which are lexicalized in at least two language families (and includes therefore the UNL Core Dictionary); the UNL Unabridged Dictionary, which contains the UNL Abridged Dictionary, brings the whole sent of permanent UW's (i.e., the concepts that are lexicalized in at least one language). <br />
*The [[UNL Knowledge Base]] is a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL. Differently from the UNL Dictionary, which brings only general features (such as lexical category, semantic class, abstractness, cardinality, etc.), the UNL KB represents the intension (the meaning) of each UW. In the UNL KB, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" is linked to the UW's "domesticated", "carnivorous", "mammal", etc. <br />
*The [[UNL Ontology]] is a part of the UNL Knowledge Base. It is a network where UW's are interconnected by the ontological relations of UNL, i.e., "is-a-kind-of" ("icl") and "is-an-instance-of" ("iof").<br />
*The [[UNL Memory]] is also a network where UW's are interconnected by the [[Universal Relations]] of UNL, but, differently from the UNL Knowledge Base, which brings the intension of a UW, the UNL Memory brings its extension, i.e., the set of instances of a UW. In the UNL Memory, it is informed, for instance, that the UW "dog" may be the agent of the UW "to bite", the object of the UW "to eat", the instrument of the UW "to chase", etc.<br />
<br />
== How to create a UW ==<br />
See the instructions at [[How to create a UW]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Attributes&diff=16732Universal Attributes2025-10-20T15:24:08Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Reverted edits by Ronaldotmartins (talk) to last revision by imported>Martins</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Attributes''' are arcs linking a node to itself. In opposition to [[Universal Relations]], they correspond to one-place predicates, i.e., functions that take a single argument. In UNL, attributes have been normally used to represent information conveyed by natural language grammatical categories (such as tense, mood, aspect, number, etc). The set of attributes, which is claimed to be universal, is defined in the [[Specs|UNL Specs]] and is not open to frequent additions.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
The syntax of attributes is defined as follows:<br />
<br />
<nowiki><attribute> ::= "@"<attribute name></nowiki><br />
<nowiki><attribute name> ::= <character>+</nowiki><br />
<nowiki><character> ::= {“a”,...,“z”,“_”}</nowiki><br />
<br />
where:<br /><br />
< > variable<br /><br />
" " terminal symbol<br /><br />
<nowiki>::=</nowiki>... is defined as ...<br /><br />
{ } disjunction ("or")<br /><br />
<nowiki>+</nowiki> to be used one or more times<br /><br />
... to be repeated more than 0 times<br /><br />
<br />
Attribute names are always lower case words or expressions. Normally, English words ("past", "will") or mnemonic abbreviations ("def", "pl") are used for attribute labelling. No blank space is allowed inside an attribute name.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
Attributes are annotations made to nodes or hypernodes of a UNL hypergraph. They denote the circumstances under which these nodes (or hypernodes) are used. <br />
<br />
Attributes may convey three different kinds of information: <br />
*The information on the role of the node in the UNL graph (as in the case for '@entry', that indicates the main (starting) node of a UNL directed graph);<br />
*The information conveyed by bound morphemes and closed classes, such as affixes (gender, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc), determiners (articles and demonstratives), adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions), conjunctions, auxiliary and quasi-auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries, modals, coverbs, preverbs) and degree adverbs (specifiers). <br />
*The information on the (external) context of the utterance, i.e., non-verbal elements of communication, such as prosody, sentence and text structure, politeness, schemes, social deixis and speech acts.<br />
<br />
== Set of attributes ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.unlweb.net.br/unlarium/dictionary/export_attributes.php List of attributes in alphabetical order]<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|openlevels=0|root=att|<br />
*[[animacy]] (ANIA)<br />
**@person<br />
**@thing<br />
*[[aspect]] (ASPA)<br />
**@causative: causative<br />
**@continuative: continuous<br />
**@experiential: experience<br />
**@habitual: habitual<br />
**@imperfective: uncompleted<br />
**@inceptive: beginning<br />
**@inchoative: change of state<br />
**@iterative: repetition<br />
**@perfect: perfect<br />
**@perfective: completed<br />
**@permissive: permissive<br />
**@persistent: persistent<br />
**@progressive: ongoing<br />
**@prospective: imminent<br />
**@result: result<br />
**@terminative: cessation<br />
*[[degree]] (DEGA)<br />
**@almost: approximative<br />
**@also: repetitive<br />
**positive<br />
***@again: iterative<br />
***@emphasis: emphasis<br />
***@enough: sufficiently (enough)<br />
***@extra: excessively (too) <br />
***@minus: downtoned (a little)<br />
***@plus: intensified (very)<br />
**comparative<br />
***@more: comparative of superiority<br />
***@less: comparative of inferiority<br />
***@equal: comparative of equality<br />
**superlative<br />
***@most: superlative of superiority<br />
***@least: superlative of inferiority<br />
*[[emotion]]s (FEEL)<br />
**@anger<br />
**@attention<br />
**@consent<br />
**@contentment<br />
**@disagreement<br />
**@discontentment<br />
**@dissent<br />
**@hesitation<br />
**@pain<br />
**@relief<br />
**@surprise<br />
**@weariness <br />
*[[figure of speech]] (FIGA)<br />
**Schemes<br />
***@brachylogia: omission of conjunctions between a series of words <br />
***@chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses<br />
***@climax: arrangement of words in order of increasing importance<br />
***@consonance: repetition of consonant sounds without the repetition of the vowel sounds<br />
***@ellipsis: omission of words<br />
***@epanalepsis: repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence<br />
***@interruption: insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence<br />
***@parallelism: use of similar structures in two or more clauses<br />
***@pleonasm: Use of superfluous or redundant words<br />
***@polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root<br />
***@polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions<br />
***@symploce: combination of anaphora and epistrophe<br />
**Tropes<br />
***@anthropomorphism: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism)<br />
***@antiphrasis: Word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony<br />
***@antonomasia: Substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa<br />
***@catachresis: use an existing word to denote something that has no name in the current language<br />
***@double_negative: Grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words<br />
***@dysphemism: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism<br />
***@epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue<br />
***@euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another<br />
***@hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis<br />
***@irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning<br />
***@metaphor: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality<br />
***@metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant<br />
***@onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning<br />
***@oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other<br />
***@paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth<br />
***@paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used<br />
***@periphrasis: Using several words instead of few<br />
***@repetition: Repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect<br />
***@synecdoche: Form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole<br />
***@synesthesia: Description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.<br />
***@zoomorphism: Applying animal characteristics to humans or gods <br />
*[[gender]] (GENA)<br />
**@female<br />
**@male<br />
**@neutral<br />
*[[information structure]] (ISTA)<br />
**@comment: what is being said about the topic<br />
**@focus: information that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor<br />
**@topic: what is being talked about<br />
*[[lexical category]] (LEXA)<br />
**@adjective<br />
**@adverb<br />
**@noun<br />
**@verb<br />
*[[manner]] (HOW)<br />
**@according_to<br />
**@against<br />
**@although<br />
**@and<br />
**@as<br />
**@as.@if<br />
**@as_far_as<br />
**@as_of<br />
**@as_per<br />
**@as_regards<br />
**@as_well_as<br />
**@barring<br />
**@because<br />
**@because_of<br />
**@besides<br />
**@but<br />
**@by<br />
**@by_means_of<br />
**@concerning<br />
**@despite<br />
**@due_to<br />
**@even.@if<br />
**@except<br />
**@except.@if<br />
**@except_for<br />
**@excluding<br />
**@failing<br />
**@for<br />
**@given<br />
**@if<br />
**@if.@only<br />
**@in_accordance_with<br />
**@in_addition_to<br />
**@in_case<br />
**@in_case_of<br />
**@in_favor_of<br />
**@in_place_of<br />
**@in_spite_of<br />
**@including<br />
**@instead_of<br />
**@like<br />
**@notwithstanding<br />
**@off<br />
**@on_account_of<br />
**@on_behalf_of<br />
**@or<br />
**@owing_to<br />
**@pace<br />
**@per<br />
**@pursuant_to<br />
**@qua<br />
**@regarding<br />
**@regardless_of<br />
**@save<br />
**@so<br />
**@than<br />
**@thanks_to<br />
**@that_of<br />
**@unless<br />
**@unlike<br />
**@versus<br />
**@with<br />
**@with_regard_to<br />
**@with_relation_to<br />
**@with_respect_to<br />
**@without<br />
**@worth <br />
*[[modality]] (MODA)<br />
**@ability<br />
**@advice<br />
**@agreement<br />
**@assertion<br />
**@assumption<br />
**@belief<br />
**@command<br />
**@conclusion<br />
**@condition<br />
**@confirmation<br />
**@consequence<br />
**@conviction<br />
**@decision<br />
**@deduction<br />
**@desire<br />
**@determination<br />
**@doubt<br />
**@exclamation<br />
**@exhortation<br />
**@expectation<br />
**@fear<br />
**@hope<br />
**@hypothesis<br />
**@intention<br />
**@interrogation<br />
**@invitation<br />
**@judgement<br />
**@narrative<br />
**@necessity<br />
**@obligation<br />
**@opinion<br />
**@permission<br />
**@possibility<br />
**@prediction<br />
**@presumption<br />
**@probability<br />
**@prohibition<br />
**@promise<br />
**@regret<br />
**@request<br />
**@speculation<br />
**@suggestion<br />
**@threat<br />
**@warning<br />
*[[nominal attributes]] (NOUA)<br />
**@about<br />
**@round<br />
**@of<br />
*[[person]] (PERA)<br />
**@1 (first person: speaker)<br />
**@2 (second person: addressee)<br />
**@3 (third person)<br />
*[[place]] (WHERE)<br />
**location<br />
***@above<br />
***@among<br />
***@around<br />
***@at<br />
***@back<br />
***@behind<br />
***@below<br />
***@beside<br />
***@between<br />
***@beyond<br />
***@bottom<br />
***@front<br />
***@in<br />
***@inside<br />
***@left<br />
***@on<br />
***@opposite<br />
***@outside<br />
***@over<br />
***@right<br />
***@side<br />
***@top<br />
***@under<br />
***@within<br />
**position<br />
***@contact<br />
***@far<br />
***@near<br />
**direction<br />
***@across<br />
***@along<br />
***@clockwise<br />
***@down<br />
***@from<br />
***@through<br />
***@throughout<br />
***@to<br />
***@towards<br />
***@up<br />
*[[polarity]] (POLA)<br />
**@yes (affirmative)<br />
**@not (negative)<br />
**@maybe (dubitative)<br />
*[[quantification]] (QUAA)<br />
**@any (any) (existential quantifier)<br />
**@all (all) (universal quantifier)<br />
**@entire (entire)<br />
**@generic (no quantification)<br />
**@half (half)<br />
**@majority (a major part)<br />
**@minority (a minor part)<br />
**@no (none)<br />
**@part (part)<br />
**@pl (plural)<br />
***@dual<br />
***@trial<br />
***@quadrual<br />
***@paucal<br />
***@multal<br />
**@singular (default)<br />
**@times (multiplicative)<br />
**@tuple (collective)<br />
**@unit (unit)<br />
*[[register]] (REGA)<br />
**@archaic<br />
**@colloquial<br />
**@dialect<br />
**@jargon<br />
**@literary<br />
**@pejorative<br />
**@slang<br />
**@taboo<br />
*[[social deixis]] (SODA)<br />
**@equivalent<br />
**@familiar<br />
**@inferior<br />
**@intimate<br />
**@polite<br />
**@reverential<br />
**@superior<br />
*[[specification]] (WHICH)<br />
**@also (also)<br />
**@circa<br />
**@def (definite)<br />
***@both (both)<br />
***@distal (far from the speaker)<br />
***@each (each)<br />
***@either (either)<br />
***@medial (near the addressee)<br />
***@other (other)<br />
***@own (own)<br />
***@proximal (near the speaker)<br />
***@same (same)<br />
***@such (such)<br />
**@even<br />
**@indef (indefinite)<br />
***@certain (certain)<br />
***@wh<br />
**@neither<br />
**@only<br />
**@ordinal (ordinal)<br />
*syntactic structures (SYNA)<br />
**conventions<br />
***@angle_bracket<br />
***@brace<br />
***@double_parenthesis<br />
***@double_quote<br />
***@parenthesis<br />
***@single_quote<br />
***@square_bracket<br />
**@entry (sentence head)<br />
**@relative (relative clause head)<br />
**@speech (direct speech)<br />
**@title (title)<br />
**@vocative (vocative)<br />
*[[time]] (WHEN)<br />
**absolute tense<br />
***@past: at a time before the moment of utterance<br />
***@present: at the moment of utterance<br />
***@future: at a time after the moment of utterance<br />
***@recent: close to the moment of utterance<br />
***@remote: remote from the moment of utterance<br />
**relative tense<br />
***@anterior: before some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
***@posterior: after some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
**other<br />
***@after<br />
***@before<br />
***@during<br />
***@following<br />
***@prior_to<br />
***@since<br />
***@subsequent_to<br />
***@until<br />
*[[voice]] (VOIA)<br />
**@active: He built this house in 1895<br />
**@passive: This house was built in 1895.<br />
**@reflexive: He killed himself.<br />
**@reciprocal: They killed each other.<br />
}}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Attributes&diff=16731Universal Attributes2025-10-20T15:23:26Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Set of attributes */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Attributes''' are arcs linking a node to itself. In opposition to [[Universal Relations]], they correspond to one-place predicates, i.e., functions that take a single argument. In UNL, attributes have been normally used to represent information conveyed by natural language grammatical categories (such as tense, mood, aspect, number, etc). The set of attributes, which is claimed to be universal, is defined in the [[Specs|UNL Specs]] and is not open to frequent additions.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
The syntax of attributes is defined as follows:<br />
<br />
<nowiki><attribute> ::= "@"<attribute name></nowiki><br />
<nowiki><attribute name> ::= <character>+</nowiki><br />
<nowiki><character> ::= {“a”,...,“z”,“_”}</nowiki><br />
<br />
where:<br /><br />
< > variable<br /><br />
" " terminal symbol<br /><br />
<nowiki>::=</nowiki>... is defined as ...<br /><br />
{ } disjunction ("or")<br /><br />
<nowiki>+</nowiki> to be used one or more times<br /><br />
... to be repeated more than 0 times<br /><br />
<br />
Attribute names are always lower case words or expressions. Normally, English words ("past", "will") or mnemonic abbreviations ("def", "pl") are used for attribute labelling. No blank space is allowed inside an attribute name.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
Attributes are annotations made to nodes or hypernodes of a UNL hypergraph. They denote the circumstances under which these nodes (or hypernodes) are used. <br />
<br />
Attributes may convey three different kinds of information: <br />
*The information on the role of the node in the UNL graph (as in the case for '@entry', that indicates the main (starting) node of a UNL directed graph);<br />
*The information conveyed by bound morphemes and closed classes, such as affixes (gender, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc), determiners (articles and demonstratives), adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions), conjunctions, auxiliary and quasi-auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries, modals, coverbs, preverbs) and degree adverbs (specifiers). <br />
*The information on the (external) context of the utterance, i.e., non-verbal elements of communication, such as prosody, sentence and text structure, politeness, schemes, social deixis and speech acts.<br />
<br />
== Set of attributes ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.unlweb.net.br/unlarium/dictionary/export_attributes.php List of attributes in alphabetical order]<br />
<br />
{{#tree: <br />
*[[animacy]] (ANIA)<br />
**@person<br />
**@thing<br />
*[[aspect]] (ASPA)<br />
**@causative: causative<br />
**@continuative: continuous<br />
**@experiential: experience<br />
**@habitual: habitual<br />
**@imperfective: uncompleted<br />
**@inceptive: beginning<br />
**@inchoative: change of state<br />
**@iterative: repetition<br />
**@perfect: perfect<br />
**@perfective: completed<br />
**@permissive: permissive<br />
**@persistent: persistent<br />
**@progressive: ongoing<br />
**@prospective: imminent<br />
**@result: result<br />
**@terminative: cessation<br />
*[[degree]] (DEGA)<br />
**@almost: approximative<br />
**@also: repetitive<br />
**positive<br />
***@again: iterative<br />
***@emphasis: emphasis<br />
***@enough: sufficiently (enough)<br />
***@extra: excessively (too) <br />
***@minus: downtoned (a little)<br />
***@plus: intensified (very)<br />
**comparative<br />
***@more: comparative of superiority<br />
***@less: comparative of inferiority<br />
***@equal: comparative of equality<br />
**superlative<br />
***@most: superlative of superiority<br />
***@least: superlative of inferiority<br />
*[[emotion]]s (FEEL)<br />
**@anger<br />
**@attention<br />
**@consent<br />
**@contentment<br />
**@disagreement<br />
**@discontentment<br />
**@dissent<br />
**@hesitation<br />
**@pain<br />
**@relief<br />
**@surprise<br />
**@weariness <br />
*[[figure of speech]] (FIGA)<br />
**Schemes<br />
***@brachylogia: omission of conjunctions between a series of words <br />
***@chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses<br />
***@climax: arrangement of words in order of increasing importance<br />
***@consonance: repetition of consonant sounds without the repetition of the vowel sounds<br />
***@ellipsis: omission of words<br />
***@epanalepsis: repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence<br />
***@interruption: insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence<br />
***@parallelism: use of similar structures in two or more clauses<br />
***@pleonasm: Use of superfluous or redundant words<br />
***@polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root<br />
***@polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions<br />
***@symploce: combination of anaphora and epistrophe<br />
**Tropes<br />
***@anthropomorphism: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism)<br />
***@antiphrasis: Word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony<br />
***@antonomasia: Substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa<br />
***@catachresis: use an existing word to denote something that has no name in the current language<br />
***@double_negative: Grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words<br />
***@dysphemism: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism<br />
***@epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue<br />
***@euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another<br />
***@hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis<br />
***@irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning<br />
***@metaphor: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality<br />
***@metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant<br />
***@onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning<br />
***@oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other<br />
***@paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth<br />
***@paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used<br />
***@periphrasis: Using several words instead of few<br />
***@repetition: Repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect<br />
***@synecdoche: Form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole<br />
***@synesthesia: Description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.<br />
***@zoomorphism: Applying animal characteristics to humans or gods <br />
*[[gender]] (GENA)<br />
**@female<br />
**@male<br />
**@neutral<br />
*[[information structure]] (ISTA)<br />
**@comment: what is being said about the topic<br />
**@focus: information that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor<br />
**@topic: what is being talked about<br />
*[[lexical category]] (LEXA)<br />
**@adjective<br />
**@adverb<br />
**@noun<br />
**@verb<br />
*[[manner]] (HOW)<br />
**@according_to<br />
**@against<br />
**@although<br />
**@and<br />
**@as<br />
**@as.@if<br />
**@as_far_as<br />
**@as_of<br />
**@as_per<br />
**@as_regards<br />
**@as_well_as<br />
**@barring<br />
**@because<br />
**@because_of<br />
**@besides<br />
**@but<br />
**@by<br />
**@by_means_of<br />
**@concerning<br />
**@despite<br />
**@due_to<br />
**@even.@if<br />
**@except<br />
**@except.@if<br />
**@except_for<br />
**@excluding<br />
**@failing<br />
**@for<br />
**@given<br />
**@if<br />
**@if.@only<br />
**@in_accordance_with<br />
**@in_addition_to<br />
**@in_case<br />
**@in_case_of<br />
**@in_favor_of<br />
**@in_place_of<br />
**@in_spite_of<br />
**@including<br />
**@instead_of<br />
**@like<br />
**@notwithstanding<br />
**@off<br />
**@on_account_of<br />
**@on_behalf_of<br />
**@or<br />
**@owing_to<br />
**@pace<br />
**@per<br />
**@pursuant_to<br />
**@qua<br />
**@regarding<br />
**@regardless_of<br />
**@save<br />
**@so<br />
**@than<br />
**@thanks_to<br />
**@that_of<br />
**@unless<br />
**@unlike<br />
**@versus<br />
**@with<br />
**@with_regard_to<br />
**@with_relation_to<br />
**@with_respect_to<br />
**@without<br />
**@worth <br />
*[[modality]] (MODA)<br />
**@ability<br />
**@advice<br />
**@agreement<br />
**@assertion<br />
**@assumption<br />
**@belief<br />
**@command<br />
**@conclusion<br />
**@condition<br />
**@confirmation<br />
**@consequence<br />
**@conviction<br />
**@decision<br />
**@deduction<br />
**@desire<br />
**@determination<br />
**@doubt<br />
**@exclamation<br />
**@exhortation<br />
**@expectation<br />
**@fear<br />
**@hope<br />
**@hypothesis<br />
**@intention<br />
**@interrogation<br />
**@invitation<br />
**@judgement<br />
**@narrative<br />
**@necessity<br />
**@obligation<br />
**@opinion<br />
**@permission<br />
**@possibility<br />
**@prediction<br />
**@presumption<br />
**@probability<br />
**@prohibition<br />
**@promise<br />
**@regret<br />
**@request<br />
**@speculation<br />
**@suggestion<br />
**@threat<br />
**@warning<br />
*[[nominal attributes]] (NOUA)<br />
**@about<br />
**@round<br />
**@of<br />
*[[person]] (PERA)<br />
**@1 (first person: speaker)<br />
**@2 (second person: addressee)<br />
**@3 (third person)<br />
*[[place]] (WHERE)<br />
**location<br />
***@above<br />
***@among<br />
***@around<br />
***@at<br />
***@back<br />
***@behind<br />
***@below<br />
***@beside<br />
***@between<br />
***@beyond<br />
***@bottom<br />
***@front<br />
***@in<br />
***@inside<br />
***@left<br />
***@on<br />
***@opposite<br />
***@outside<br />
***@over<br />
***@right<br />
***@side<br />
***@top<br />
***@under<br />
***@within<br />
**position<br />
***@contact<br />
***@far<br />
***@near<br />
**direction<br />
***@across<br />
***@along<br />
***@clockwise<br />
***@down<br />
***@from<br />
***@through<br />
***@throughout<br />
***@to<br />
***@towards<br />
***@up<br />
*[[polarity]] (POLA)<br />
**@yes (affirmative)<br />
**@not (negative)<br />
**@maybe (dubitative)<br />
*[[quantification]] (QUAA)<br />
**@any (any) (existential quantifier)<br />
**@all (all) (universal quantifier)<br />
**@entire (entire)<br />
**@generic (no quantification)<br />
**@half (half)<br />
**@majority (a major part)<br />
**@minority (a minor part)<br />
**@no (none)<br />
**@part (part)<br />
**@pl (plural)<br />
***@dual<br />
***@trial<br />
***@quadrual<br />
***@paucal<br />
***@multal<br />
**@singular (default)<br />
**@times (multiplicative)<br />
**@tuple (collective)<br />
**@unit (unit)<br />
*[[register]] (REGA)<br />
**@archaic<br />
**@colloquial<br />
**@dialect<br />
**@jargon<br />
**@literary<br />
**@pejorative<br />
**@slang<br />
**@taboo<br />
*[[social deixis]] (SODA)<br />
**@equivalent<br />
**@familiar<br />
**@inferior<br />
**@intimate<br />
**@polite<br />
**@reverential<br />
**@superior<br />
*[[specification]] (WHICH)<br />
**@also (also)<br />
**@circa<br />
**@def (definite)<br />
***@both (both)<br />
***@distal (far from the speaker)<br />
***@each (each)<br />
***@either (either)<br />
***@medial (near the addressee)<br />
***@other (other)<br />
***@own (own)<br />
***@proximal (near the speaker)<br />
***@same (same)<br />
***@such (such)<br />
**@even<br />
**@indef (indefinite)<br />
***@certain (certain)<br />
***@wh<br />
**@neither<br />
**@only<br />
**@ordinal (ordinal)<br />
*syntactic structures (SYNA)<br />
**conventions<br />
***@angle_bracket<br />
***@brace<br />
***@double_parenthesis<br />
***@double_quote<br />
***@parenthesis<br />
***@single_quote<br />
***@square_bracket<br />
**@entry (sentence head)<br />
**@relative (relative clause head)<br />
**@speech (direct speech)<br />
**@title (title)<br />
**@vocative (vocative)<br />
*[[time]] (WHEN)<br />
**absolute tense<br />
***@past: at a time before the moment of utterance<br />
***@present: at the moment of utterance<br />
***@future: at a time after the moment of utterance<br />
***@recent: close to the moment of utterance<br />
***@remote: remote from the moment of utterance<br />
**relative tense<br />
***@anterior: before some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
***@posterior: after some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
**other<br />
***@after<br />
***@before<br />
***@during<br />
***@following<br />
***@prior_to<br />
***@since<br />
***@subsequent_to<br />
***@until<br />
*[[voice]] (VOIA)<br />
**@active: He built this house in 1895<br />
**@passive: This house was built in 1895.<br />
**@reflexive: He killed himself.<br />
**@reciprocal: They killed each other.<br />
}}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Attributes&diff=16730Universal Attributes2025-10-20T15:23:16Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Set of attributes */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Attributes''' are arcs linking a node to itself. In opposition to [[Universal Relations]], they correspond to one-place predicates, i.e., functions that take a single argument. In UNL, attributes have been normally used to represent information conveyed by natural language grammatical categories (such as tense, mood, aspect, number, etc). The set of attributes, which is claimed to be universal, is defined in the [[Specs|UNL Specs]] and is not open to frequent additions.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
The syntax of attributes is defined as follows:<br />
<br />
<nowiki><attribute> ::= "@"<attribute name></nowiki><br />
<nowiki><attribute name> ::= <character>+</nowiki><br />
<nowiki><character> ::= {“a”,...,“z”,“_”}</nowiki><br />
<br />
where:<br /><br />
< > variable<br /><br />
" " terminal symbol<br /><br />
<nowiki>::=</nowiki>... is defined as ...<br /><br />
{ } disjunction ("or")<br /><br />
<nowiki>+</nowiki> to be used one or more times<br /><br />
... to be repeated more than 0 times<br /><br />
<br />
Attribute names are always lower case words or expressions. Normally, English words ("past", "will") or mnemonic abbreviations ("def", "pl") are used for attribute labelling. No blank space is allowed inside an attribute name.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
Attributes are annotations made to nodes or hypernodes of a UNL hypergraph. They denote the circumstances under which these nodes (or hypernodes) are used. <br />
<br />
Attributes may convey three different kinds of information: <br />
*The information on the role of the node in the UNL graph (as in the case for '@entry', that indicates the main (starting) node of a UNL directed graph);<br />
*The information conveyed by bound morphemes and closed classes, such as affixes (gender, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc), determiners (articles and demonstratives), adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions), conjunctions, auxiliary and quasi-auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries, modals, coverbs, preverbs) and degree adverbs (specifiers). <br />
*The information on the (external) context of the utterance, i.e., non-verbal elements of communication, such as prosody, sentence and text structure, politeness, schemes, social deixis and speech acts.<br />
<br />
== Set of attributes ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.unlweb.net.br/unlarium/dictionary/export_attributes.php List of attributes in alphabetical order]<br />
<br />
{{#tree: id=tagset|root=att|<br />
*[[animacy]] (ANIA)<br />
**@person<br />
**@thing<br />
*[[aspect]] (ASPA)<br />
**@causative: causative<br />
**@continuative: continuous<br />
**@experiential: experience<br />
**@habitual: habitual<br />
**@imperfective: uncompleted<br />
**@inceptive: beginning<br />
**@inchoative: change of state<br />
**@iterative: repetition<br />
**@perfect: perfect<br />
**@perfective: completed<br />
**@permissive: permissive<br />
**@persistent: persistent<br />
**@progressive: ongoing<br />
**@prospective: imminent<br />
**@result: result<br />
**@terminative: cessation<br />
*[[degree]] (DEGA)<br />
**@almost: approximative<br />
**@also: repetitive<br />
**positive<br />
***@again: iterative<br />
***@emphasis: emphasis<br />
***@enough: sufficiently (enough)<br />
***@extra: excessively (too) <br />
***@minus: downtoned (a little)<br />
***@plus: intensified (very)<br />
**comparative<br />
***@more: comparative of superiority<br />
***@less: comparative of inferiority<br />
***@equal: comparative of equality<br />
**superlative<br />
***@most: superlative of superiority<br />
***@least: superlative of inferiority<br />
*[[emotion]]s (FEEL)<br />
**@anger<br />
**@attention<br />
**@consent<br />
**@contentment<br />
**@disagreement<br />
**@discontentment<br />
**@dissent<br />
**@hesitation<br />
**@pain<br />
**@relief<br />
**@surprise<br />
**@weariness <br />
*[[figure of speech]] (FIGA)<br />
**Schemes<br />
***@brachylogia: omission of conjunctions between a series of words <br />
***@chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses<br />
***@climax: arrangement of words in order of increasing importance<br />
***@consonance: repetition of consonant sounds without the repetition of the vowel sounds<br />
***@ellipsis: omission of words<br />
***@epanalepsis: repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence<br />
***@interruption: insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence<br />
***@parallelism: use of similar structures in two or more clauses<br />
***@pleonasm: Use of superfluous or redundant words<br />
***@polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root<br />
***@polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions<br />
***@symploce: combination of anaphora and epistrophe<br />
**Tropes<br />
***@anthropomorphism: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism)<br />
***@antiphrasis: Word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony<br />
***@antonomasia: Substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa<br />
***@catachresis: use an existing word to denote something that has no name in the current language<br />
***@double_negative: Grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words<br />
***@dysphemism: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism<br />
***@epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue<br />
***@euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another<br />
***@hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis<br />
***@irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning<br />
***@metaphor: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality<br />
***@metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant<br />
***@onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning<br />
***@oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other<br />
***@paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth<br />
***@paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used<br />
***@periphrasis: Using several words instead of few<br />
***@repetition: Repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect<br />
***@synecdoche: Form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole<br />
***@synesthesia: Description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.<br />
***@zoomorphism: Applying animal characteristics to humans or gods <br />
*[[gender]] (GENA)<br />
**@female<br />
**@male<br />
**@neutral<br />
*[[information structure]] (ISTA)<br />
**@comment: what is being said about the topic<br />
**@focus: information that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor<br />
**@topic: what is being talked about<br />
*[[lexical category]] (LEXA)<br />
**@adjective<br />
**@adverb<br />
**@noun<br />
**@verb<br />
*[[manner]] (HOW)<br />
**@according_to<br />
**@against<br />
**@although<br />
**@and<br />
**@as<br />
**@as.@if<br />
**@as_far_as<br />
**@as_of<br />
**@as_per<br />
**@as_regards<br />
**@as_well_as<br />
**@barring<br />
**@because<br />
**@because_of<br />
**@besides<br />
**@but<br />
**@by<br />
**@by_means_of<br />
**@concerning<br />
**@despite<br />
**@due_to<br />
**@even.@if<br />
**@except<br />
**@except.@if<br />
**@except_for<br />
**@excluding<br />
**@failing<br />
**@for<br />
**@given<br />
**@if<br />
**@if.@only<br />
**@in_accordance_with<br />
**@in_addition_to<br />
**@in_case<br />
**@in_case_of<br />
**@in_favor_of<br />
**@in_place_of<br />
**@in_spite_of<br />
**@including<br />
**@instead_of<br />
**@like<br />
**@notwithstanding<br />
**@off<br />
**@on_account_of<br />
**@on_behalf_of<br />
**@or<br />
**@owing_to<br />
**@pace<br />
**@per<br />
**@pursuant_to<br />
**@qua<br />
**@regarding<br />
**@regardless_of<br />
**@save<br />
**@so<br />
**@than<br />
**@thanks_to<br />
**@that_of<br />
**@unless<br />
**@unlike<br />
**@versus<br />
**@with<br />
**@with_regard_to<br />
**@with_relation_to<br />
**@with_respect_to<br />
**@without<br />
**@worth <br />
*[[modality]] (MODA)<br />
**@ability<br />
**@advice<br />
**@agreement<br />
**@assertion<br />
**@assumption<br />
**@belief<br />
**@command<br />
**@conclusion<br />
**@condition<br />
**@confirmation<br />
**@consequence<br />
**@conviction<br />
**@decision<br />
**@deduction<br />
**@desire<br />
**@determination<br />
**@doubt<br />
**@exclamation<br />
**@exhortation<br />
**@expectation<br />
**@fear<br />
**@hope<br />
**@hypothesis<br />
**@intention<br />
**@interrogation<br />
**@invitation<br />
**@judgement<br />
**@narrative<br />
**@necessity<br />
**@obligation<br />
**@opinion<br />
**@permission<br />
**@possibility<br />
**@prediction<br />
**@presumption<br />
**@probability<br />
**@prohibition<br />
**@promise<br />
**@regret<br />
**@request<br />
**@speculation<br />
**@suggestion<br />
**@threat<br />
**@warning<br />
*[[nominal attributes]] (NOUA)<br />
**@about<br />
**@round<br />
**@of<br />
*[[person]] (PERA)<br />
**@1 (first person: speaker)<br />
**@2 (second person: addressee)<br />
**@3 (third person)<br />
*[[place]] (WHERE)<br />
**location<br />
***@above<br />
***@among<br />
***@around<br />
***@at<br />
***@back<br />
***@behind<br />
***@below<br />
***@beside<br />
***@between<br />
***@beyond<br />
***@bottom<br />
***@front<br />
***@in<br />
***@inside<br />
***@left<br />
***@on<br />
***@opposite<br />
***@outside<br />
***@over<br />
***@right<br />
***@side<br />
***@top<br />
***@under<br />
***@within<br />
**position<br />
***@contact<br />
***@far<br />
***@near<br />
**direction<br />
***@across<br />
***@along<br />
***@clockwise<br />
***@down<br />
***@from<br />
***@through<br />
***@throughout<br />
***@to<br />
***@towards<br />
***@up<br />
*[[polarity]] (POLA)<br />
**@yes (affirmative)<br />
**@not (negative)<br />
**@maybe (dubitative)<br />
*[[quantification]] (QUAA)<br />
**@any (any) (existential quantifier)<br />
**@all (all) (universal quantifier)<br />
**@entire (entire)<br />
**@generic (no quantification)<br />
**@half (half)<br />
**@majority (a major part)<br />
**@minority (a minor part)<br />
**@no (none)<br />
**@part (part)<br />
**@pl (plural)<br />
***@dual<br />
***@trial<br />
***@quadrual<br />
***@paucal<br />
***@multal<br />
**@singular (default)<br />
**@times (multiplicative)<br />
**@tuple (collective)<br />
**@unit (unit)<br />
*[[register]] (REGA)<br />
**@archaic<br />
**@colloquial<br />
**@dialect<br />
**@jargon<br />
**@literary<br />
**@pejorative<br />
**@slang<br />
**@taboo<br />
*[[social deixis]] (SODA)<br />
**@equivalent<br />
**@familiar<br />
**@inferior<br />
**@intimate<br />
**@polite<br />
**@reverential<br />
**@superior<br />
*[[specification]] (WHICH)<br />
**@also (also)<br />
**@circa<br />
**@def (definite)<br />
***@both (both)<br />
***@distal (far from the speaker)<br />
***@each (each)<br />
***@either (either)<br />
***@medial (near the addressee)<br />
***@other (other)<br />
***@own (own)<br />
***@proximal (near the speaker)<br />
***@same (same)<br />
***@such (such)<br />
**@even<br />
**@indef (indefinite)<br />
***@certain (certain)<br />
***@wh<br />
**@neither<br />
**@only<br />
**@ordinal (ordinal)<br />
*syntactic structures (SYNA)<br />
**conventions<br />
***@angle_bracket<br />
***@brace<br />
***@double_parenthesis<br />
***@double_quote<br />
***@parenthesis<br />
***@single_quote<br />
***@square_bracket<br />
**@entry (sentence head)<br />
**@relative (relative clause head)<br />
**@speech (direct speech)<br />
**@title (title)<br />
**@vocative (vocative)<br />
*[[time]] (WHEN)<br />
**absolute tense<br />
***@past: at a time before the moment of utterance<br />
***@present: at the moment of utterance<br />
***@future: at a time after the moment of utterance<br />
***@recent: close to the moment of utterance<br />
***@remote: remote from the moment of utterance<br />
**relative tense<br />
***@anterior: before some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
***@posterior: after some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
**other<br />
***@after<br />
***@before<br />
***@during<br />
***@following<br />
***@prior_to<br />
***@since<br />
***@subsequent_to<br />
***@until<br />
*[[voice]] (VOIA)<br />
**@active: He built this house in 1895<br />
**@passive: This house was built in 1895.<br />
**@reflexive: He killed himself.<br />
**@reciprocal: They killed each other.<br />
}}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Attributes&diff=16729Universal Attributes2025-10-20T15:22:32Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Set of attributes */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Attributes''' are arcs linking a node to itself. In opposition to [[Universal Relations]], they correspond to one-place predicates, i.e., functions that take a single argument. In UNL, attributes have been normally used to represent information conveyed by natural language grammatical categories (such as tense, mood, aspect, number, etc). The set of attributes, which is claimed to be universal, is defined in the [[Specs|UNL Specs]] and is not open to frequent additions.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
The syntax of attributes is defined as follows:<br />
<br />
<nowiki><attribute> ::= "@"<attribute name></nowiki><br />
<nowiki><attribute name> ::= <character>+</nowiki><br />
<nowiki><character> ::= {“a”,...,“z”,“_”}</nowiki><br />
<br />
where:<br /><br />
< > variable<br /><br />
" " terminal symbol<br /><br />
<nowiki>::=</nowiki>... is defined as ...<br /><br />
{ } disjunction ("or")<br /><br />
<nowiki>+</nowiki> to be used one or more times<br /><br />
... to be repeated more than 0 times<br /><br />
<br />
Attribute names are always lower case words or expressions. Normally, English words ("past", "will") or mnemonic abbreviations ("def", "pl") are used for attribute labelling. No blank space is allowed inside an attribute name.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
Attributes are annotations made to nodes or hypernodes of a UNL hypergraph. They denote the circumstances under which these nodes (or hypernodes) are used. <br />
<br />
Attributes may convey three different kinds of information: <br />
*The information on the role of the node in the UNL graph (as in the case for '@entry', that indicates the main (starting) node of a UNL directed graph);<br />
*The information conveyed by bound morphemes and closed classes, such as affixes (gender, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc), determiners (articles and demonstratives), adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions), conjunctions, auxiliary and quasi-auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries, modals, coverbs, preverbs) and degree adverbs (specifiers). <br />
*The information on the (external) context of the utterance, i.e., non-verbal elements of communication, such as prosody, sentence and text structure, politeness, schemes, social deixis and speech acts.<br />
<br />
== Set of attributes ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.unlweb.net.br/unlarium/dictionary/export_attributes.php List of attributes in alphabetical order]<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|root=att|<br />
*[[animacy]] (ANIA)<br />
**@person<br />
**@thing<br />
*[[aspect]] (ASPA)<br />
**@causative: causative<br />
**@continuative: continuous<br />
**@experiential: experience<br />
**@habitual: habitual<br />
**@imperfective: uncompleted<br />
**@inceptive: beginning<br />
**@inchoative: change of state<br />
**@iterative: repetition<br />
**@perfect: perfect<br />
**@perfective: completed<br />
**@permissive: permissive<br />
**@persistent: persistent<br />
**@progressive: ongoing<br />
**@prospective: imminent<br />
**@result: result<br />
**@terminative: cessation<br />
*[[degree]] (DEGA)<br />
**@almost: approximative<br />
**@also: repetitive<br />
**positive<br />
***@again: iterative<br />
***@emphasis: emphasis<br />
***@enough: sufficiently (enough)<br />
***@extra: excessively (too) <br />
***@minus: downtoned (a little)<br />
***@plus: intensified (very)<br />
**comparative<br />
***@more: comparative of superiority<br />
***@less: comparative of inferiority<br />
***@equal: comparative of equality<br />
**superlative<br />
***@most: superlative of superiority<br />
***@least: superlative of inferiority<br />
*[[emotion]]s (FEEL)<br />
**@anger<br />
**@attention<br />
**@consent<br />
**@contentment<br />
**@disagreement<br />
**@discontentment<br />
**@dissent<br />
**@hesitation<br />
**@pain<br />
**@relief<br />
**@surprise<br />
**@weariness <br />
*[[figure of speech]] (FIGA)<br />
**Schemes<br />
***@brachylogia: omission of conjunctions between a series of words <br />
***@chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses<br />
***@climax: arrangement of words in order of increasing importance<br />
***@consonance: repetition of consonant sounds without the repetition of the vowel sounds<br />
***@ellipsis: omission of words<br />
***@epanalepsis: repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence<br />
***@interruption: insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence<br />
***@parallelism: use of similar structures in two or more clauses<br />
***@pleonasm: Use of superfluous or redundant words<br />
***@polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root<br />
***@polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions<br />
***@symploce: combination of anaphora and epistrophe<br />
**Tropes<br />
***@anthropomorphism: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism)<br />
***@antiphrasis: Word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony<br />
***@antonomasia: Substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa<br />
***@catachresis: use an existing word to denote something that has no name in the current language<br />
***@double_negative: Grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words<br />
***@dysphemism: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism<br />
***@epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue<br />
***@euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another<br />
***@hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis<br />
***@irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning<br />
***@metaphor: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality<br />
***@metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant<br />
***@onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning<br />
***@oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other<br />
***@paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth<br />
***@paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used<br />
***@periphrasis: Using several words instead of few<br />
***@repetition: Repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect<br />
***@synecdoche: Form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole<br />
***@synesthesia: Description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.<br />
***@zoomorphism: Applying animal characteristics to humans or gods <br />
*[[gender]] (GENA)<br />
**@female<br />
**@male<br />
**@neutral<br />
*[[information structure]] (ISTA)<br />
**@comment: what is being said about the topic<br />
**@focus: information that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor<br />
**@topic: what is being talked about<br />
*[[lexical category]] (LEXA)<br />
**@adjective<br />
**@adverb<br />
**@noun<br />
**@verb<br />
*[[manner]] (HOW)<br />
**@according_to<br />
**@against<br />
**@although<br />
**@and<br />
**@as<br />
**@as.@if<br />
**@as_far_as<br />
**@as_of<br />
**@as_per<br />
**@as_regards<br />
**@as_well_as<br />
**@barring<br />
**@because<br />
**@because_of<br />
**@besides<br />
**@but<br />
**@by<br />
**@by_means_of<br />
**@concerning<br />
**@despite<br />
**@due_to<br />
**@even.@if<br />
**@except<br />
**@except.@if<br />
**@except_for<br />
**@excluding<br />
**@failing<br />
**@for<br />
**@given<br />
**@if<br />
**@if.@only<br />
**@in_accordance_with<br />
**@in_addition_to<br />
**@in_case<br />
**@in_case_of<br />
**@in_favor_of<br />
**@in_place_of<br />
**@in_spite_of<br />
**@including<br />
**@instead_of<br />
**@like<br />
**@notwithstanding<br />
**@off<br />
**@on_account_of<br />
**@on_behalf_of<br />
**@or<br />
**@owing_to<br />
**@pace<br />
**@per<br />
**@pursuant_to<br />
**@qua<br />
**@regarding<br />
**@regardless_of<br />
**@save<br />
**@so<br />
**@than<br />
**@thanks_to<br />
**@that_of<br />
**@unless<br />
**@unlike<br />
**@versus<br />
**@with<br />
**@with_regard_to<br />
**@with_relation_to<br />
**@with_respect_to<br />
**@without<br />
**@worth <br />
*[[modality]] (MODA)<br />
**@ability<br />
**@advice<br />
**@agreement<br />
**@assertion<br />
**@assumption<br />
**@belief<br />
**@command<br />
**@conclusion<br />
**@condition<br />
**@confirmation<br />
**@consequence<br />
**@conviction<br />
**@decision<br />
**@deduction<br />
**@desire<br />
**@determination<br />
**@doubt<br />
**@exclamation<br />
**@exhortation<br />
**@expectation<br />
**@fear<br />
**@hope<br />
**@hypothesis<br />
**@intention<br />
**@interrogation<br />
**@invitation<br />
**@judgement<br />
**@narrative<br />
**@necessity<br />
**@obligation<br />
**@opinion<br />
**@permission<br />
**@possibility<br />
**@prediction<br />
**@presumption<br />
**@probability<br />
**@prohibition<br />
**@promise<br />
**@regret<br />
**@request<br />
**@speculation<br />
**@suggestion<br />
**@threat<br />
**@warning<br />
*[[nominal attributes]] (NOUA)<br />
**@about<br />
**@round<br />
**@of<br />
*[[person]] (PERA)<br />
**@1 (first person: speaker)<br />
**@2 (second person: addressee)<br />
**@3 (third person)<br />
*[[place]] (WHERE)<br />
**location<br />
***@above<br />
***@among<br />
***@around<br />
***@at<br />
***@back<br />
***@behind<br />
***@below<br />
***@beside<br />
***@between<br />
***@beyond<br />
***@bottom<br />
***@front<br />
***@in<br />
***@inside<br />
***@left<br />
***@on<br />
***@opposite<br />
***@outside<br />
***@over<br />
***@right<br />
***@side<br />
***@top<br />
***@under<br />
***@within<br />
**position<br />
***@contact<br />
***@far<br />
***@near<br />
**direction<br />
***@across<br />
***@along<br />
***@clockwise<br />
***@down<br />
***@from<br />
***@through<br />
***@throughout<br />
***@to<br />
***@towards<br />
***@up<br />
*[[polarity]] (POLA)<br />
**@yes (affirmative)<br />
**@not (negative)<br />
**@maybe (dubitative)<br />
*[[quantification]] (QUAA)<br />
**@any (any) (existential quantifier)<br />
**@all (all) (universal quantifier)<br />
**@entire (entire)<br />
**@generic (no quantification)<br />
**@half (half)<br />
**@majority (a major part)<br />
**@minority (a minor part)<br />
**@no (none)<br />
**@part (part)<br />
**@pl (plural)<br />
***@dual<br />
***@trial<br />
***@quadrual<br />
***@paucal<br />
***@multal<br />
**@singular (default)<br />
**@times (multiplicative)<br />
**@tuple (collective)<br />
**@unit (unit)<br />
*[[register]] (REGA)<br />
**@archaic<br />
**@colloquial<br />
**@dialect<br />
**@jargon<br />
**@literary<br />
**@pejorative<br />
**@slang<br />
**@taboo<br />
*[[social deixis]] (SODA)<br />
**@equivalent<br />
**@familiar<br />
**@inferior<br />
**@intimate<br />
**@polite<br />
**@reverential<br />
**@superior<br />
*[[specification]] (WHICH)<br />
**@also (also)<br />
**@circa<br />
**@def (definite)<br />
***@both (both)<br />
***@distal (far from the speaker)<br />
***@each (each)<br />
***@either (either)<br />
***@medial (near the addressee)<br />
***@other (other)<br />
***@own (own)<br />
***@proximal (near the speaker)<br />
***@same (same)<br />
***@such (such)<br />
**@even<br />
**@indef (indefinite)<br />
***@certain (certain)<br />
***@wh<br />
**@neither<br />
**@only<br />
**@ordinal (ordinal)<br />
*syntactic structures (SYNA)<br />
**conventions<br />
***@angle_bracket<br />
***@brace<br />
***@double_parenthesis<br />
***@double_quote<br />
***@parenthesis<br />
***@single_quote<br />
***@square_bracket<br />
**@entry (sentence head)<br />
**@relative (relative clause head)<br />
**@speech (direct speech)<br />
**@title (title)<br />
**@vocative (vocative)<br />
*[[time]] (WHEN)<br />
**absolute tense<br />
***@past: at a time before the moment of utterance<br />
***@present: at the moment of utterance<br />
***@future: at a time after the moment of utterance<br />
***@recent: close to the moment of utterance<br />
***@remote: remote from the moment of utterance<br />
**relative tense<br />
***@anterior: before some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
***@posterior: after some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
**other<br />
***@after<br />
***@before<br />
***@during<br />
***@following<br />
***@prior_to<br />
***@since<br />
***@subsequent_to<br />
***@until<br />
*[[voice]] (VOIA)<br />
**@active: He built this house in 1895<br />
**@passive: This house was built in 1895.<br />
**@reflexive: He killed himself.<br />
**@reciprocal: They killed each other.<br />
}}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Universal_Attributes&diff=16728Universal Attributes2025-10-20T15:21:25Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Set of attributes */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Universal Attributes''' are arcs linking a node to itself. In opposition to [[Universal Relations]], they correspond to one-place predicates, i.e., functions that take a single argument. In UNL, attributes have been normally used to represent information conveyed by natural language grammatical categories (such as tense, mood, aspect, number, etc). The set of attributes, which is claimed to be universal, is defined in the [[Specs|UNL Specs]] and is not open to frequent additions.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
The syntax of attributes is defined as follows:<br />
<br />
<nowiki><attribute> ::= "@"<attribute name></nowiki><br />
<nowiki><attribute name> ::= <character>+</nowiki><br />
<nowiki><character> ::= {“a”,...,“z”,“_”}</nowiki><br />
<br />
where:<br /><br />
< > variable<br /><br />
" " terminal symbol<br /><br />
<nowiki>::=</nowiki>... is defined as ...<br /><br />
{ } disjunction ("or")<br /><br />
<nowiki>+</nowiki> to be used one or more times<br /><br />
... to be repeated more than 0 times<br /><br />
<br />
Attribute names are always lower case words or expressions. Normally, English words ("past", "will") or mnemonic abbreviations ("def", "pl") are used for attribute labelling. No blank space is allowed inside an attribute name.<br />
<br />
== Semantics ==<br />
<br />
Attributes are annotations made to nodes or hypernodes of a UNL hypergraph. They denote the circumstances under which these nodes (or hypernodes) are used. <br />
<br />
Attributes may convey three different kinds of information: <br />
*The information on the role of the node in the UNL graph (as in the case for '@entry', that indicates the main (starting) node of a UNL directed graph);<br />
*The information conveyed by bound morphemes and closed classes, such as affixes (gender, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc), determiners (articles and demonstratives), adpositions (prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions), conjunctions, auxiliary and quasi-auxiliary verbs (auxiliaries, modals, coverbs, preverbs) and degree adverbs (specifiers). <br />
*The information on the (external) context of the utterance, i.e., non-verbal elements of communication, such as prosody, sentence and text structure, politeness, schemes, social deixis and speech acts.<br />
<br />
== Set of attributes ==<br />
<br />
[http://www.unlweb.net.br/unlarium/dictionary/export_attributes.php List of attributes in alphabetical order]<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=tagset|openlevels=0|root=att|<br />
*[[animacy]] (ANIA)<br />
**@person<br />
**@thing<br />
*[[aspect]] (ASPA)<br />
**@causative: causative<br />
**@continuative: continuous<br />
**@experiential: experience<br />
**@habitual: habitual<br />
**@imperfective: uncompleted<br />
**@inceptive: beginning<br />
**@inchoative: change of state<br />
**@iterative: repetition<br />
**@perfect: perfect<br />
**@perfective: completed<br />
**@permissive: permissive<br />
**@persistent: persistent<br />
**@progressive: ongoing<br />
**@prospective: imminent<br />
**@result: result<br />
**@terminative: cessation<br />
*[[degree]] (DEGA)<br />
**@almost: approximative<br />
**@also: repetitive<br />
**positive<br />
***@again: iterative<br />
***@emphasis: emphasis<br />
***@enough: sufficiently (enough)<br />
***@extra: excessively (too) <br />
***@minus: downtoned (a little)<br />
***@plus: intensified (very)<br />
**comparative<br />
***@more: comparative of superiority<br />
***@less: comparative of inferiority<br />
***@equal: comparative of equality<br />
**superlative<br />
***@most: superlative of superiority<br />
***@least: superlative of inferiority<br />
*[[emotion]]s (FEEL)<br />
**@anger<br />
**@attention<br />
**@consent<br />
**@contentment<br />
**@disagreement<br />
**@discontentment<br />
**@dissent<br />
**@hesitation<br />
**@pain<br />
**@relief<br />
**@surprise<br />
**@weariness <br />
*[[figure of speech]] (FIGA)<br />
**Schemes<br />
***@brachylogia: omission of conjunctions between a series of words <br />
***@chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses<br />
***@climax: arrangement of words in order of increasing importance<br />
***@consonance: repetition of consonant sounds without the repetition of the vowel sounds<br />
***@ellipsis: omission of words<br />
***@epanalepsis: repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end of the clause or sentence<br />
***@interruption: insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence<br />
***@parallelism: use of similar structures in two or more clauses<br />
***@pleonasm: Use of superfluous or redundant words<br />
***@polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root<br />
***@polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions<br />
***@symploce: combination of anaphora and epistrophe<br />
**Tropes<br />
***@anthropomorphism: Ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see zoomorphism)<br />
***@antiphrasis: Word or words used contradictory to their usual meaning, often with irony<br />
***@antonomasia: Substitution of a phrase for a proper name or vice versa<br />
***@catachresis: use an existing word to denote something that has no name in the current language<br />
***@double_negative: Grammar construction that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words<br />
***@dysphemism: Substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of euphemism<br />
***@epanorthosis: Immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a slip of the tongue<br />
***@euphemism: Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another<br />
***@hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis<br />
***@irony: Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning<br />
***@metaphor: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality<br />
***@metonymy: Substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant<br />
***@onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning<br />
***@oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other<br />
***@paradox: Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth<br />
***@paronomasia: A form of pun, in which words similar in sound but with different meanings are used<br />
***@periphrasis: Using several words instead of few<br />
***@repetition: Repeated usage of word(s)/group of words in the same sentence to create a poetic/rhythmic effect<br />
***@synecdoche: Form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole<br />
***@synesthesia: Description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.<br />
***@zoomorphism: Applying animal characteristics to humans or gods <br />
*[[gender]] (GENA)<br />
**@female<br />
**@male<br />
**@neutral<br />
*[[information structure]] (ISTA)<br />
**@comment: what is being said about the topic<br />
**@focus: information that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor<br />
**@topic: what is being talked about<br />
*[[lexical category]] (LEXA)<br />
**@adjective<br />
**@adverb<br />
**@noun<br />
**@verb<br />
*[[manner]] (HOW)<br />
**@according_to<br />
**@against<br />
**@although<br />
**@and<br />
**@as<br />
**@as.@if<br />
**@as_far_as<br />
**@as_of<br />
**@as_per<br />
**@as_regards<br />
**@as_well_as<br />
**@barring<br />
**@because<br />
**@because_of<br />
**@besides<br />
**@but<br />
**@by<br />
**@by_means_of<br />
**@concerning<br />
**@despite<br />
**@due_to<br />
**@even.@if<br />
**@except<br />
**@except.@if<br />
**@except_for<br />
**@excluding<br />
**@failing<br />
**@for<br />
**@given<br />
**@if<br />
**@if.@only<br />
**@in_accordance_with<br />
**@in_addition_to<br />
**@in_case<br />
**@in_case_of<br />
**@in_favor_of<br />
**@in_place_of<br />
**@in_spite_of<br />
**@including<br />
**@instead_of<br />
**@like<br />
**@notwithstanding<br />
**@off<br />
**@on_account_of<br />
**@on_behalf_of<br />
**@or<br />
**@owing_to<br />
**@pace<br />
**@per<br />
**@pursuant_to<br />
**@qua<br />
**@regarding<br />
**@regardless_of<br />
**@save<br />
**@so<br />
**@than<br />
**@thanks_to<br />
**@that_of<br />
**@unless<br />
**@unlike<br />
**@versus<br />
**@with<br />
**@with_regard_to<br />
**@with_relation_to<br />
**@with_respect_to<br />
**@without<br />
**@worth <br />
*[[modality]] (MODA)<br />
**@ability<br />
**@advice<br />
**@agreement<br />
**@assertion<br />
**@assumption<br />
**@belief<br />
**@command<br />
**@conclusion<br />
**@condition<br />
**@confirmation<br />
**@consequence<br />
**@conviction<br />
**@decision<br />
**@deduction<br />
**@desire<br />
**@determination<br />
**@doubt<br />
**@exclamation<br />
**@exhortation<br />
**@expectation<br />
**@fear<br />
**@hope<br />
**@hypothesis<br />
**@intention<br />
**@interrogation<br />
**@invitation<br />
**@judgement<br />
**@narrative<br />
**@necessity<br />
**@obligation<br />
**@opinion<br />
**@permission<br />
**@possibility<br />
**@prediction<br />
**@presumption<br />
**@probability<br />
**@prohibition<br />
**@promise<br />
**@regret<br />
**@request<br />
**@speculation<br />
**@suggestion<br />
**@threat<br />
**@warning<br />
*[[nominal attributes]] (NOUA)<br />
**@about<br />
**@round<br />
**@of<br />
*[[person]] (PERA)<br />
**@1 (first person: speaker)<br />
**@2 (second person: addressee)<br />
**@3 (third person)<br />
*[[place]] (WHERE)<br />
**location<br />
***@above<br />
***@among<br />
***@around<br />
***@at<br />
***@back<br />
***@behind<br />
***@below<br />
***@beside<br />
***@between<br />
***@beyond<br />
***@bottom<br />
***@front<br />
***@in<br />
***@inside<br />
***@left<br />
***@on<br />
***@opposite<br />
***@outside<br />
***@over<br />
***@right<br />
***@side<br />
***@top<br />
***@under<br />
***@within<br />
**position<br />
***@contact<br />
***@far<br />
***@near<br />
**direction<br />
***@across<br />
***@along<br />
***@clockwise<br />
***@down<br />
***@from<br />
***@through<br />
***@throughout<br />
***@to<br />
***@towards<br />
***@up<br />
*[[polarity]] (POLA)<br />
**@yes (affirmative)<br />
**@not (negative)<br />
**@maybe (dubitative)<br />
*[[quantification]] (QUAA)<br />
**@any (any) (existential quantifier)<br />
**@all (all) (universal quantifier)<br />
**@entire (entire)<br />
**@generic (no quantification)<br />
**@half (half)<br />
**@majority (a major part)<br />
**@minority (a minor part)<br />
**@no (none)<br />
**@part (part)<br />
**@pl (plural)<br />
***@dual<br />
***@trial<br />
***@quadrual<br />
***@paucal<br />
***@multal<br />
**@singular (default)<br />
**@times (multiplicative)<br />
**@tuple (collective)<br />
**@unit (unit)<br />
*[[register]] (REGA)<br />
**@archaic<br />
**@colloquial<br />
**@dialect<br />
**@jargon<br />
**@literary<br />
**@pejorative<br />
**@slang<br />
**@taboo<br />
*[[social deixis]] (SODA)<br />
**@equivalent<br />
**@familiar<br />
**@inferior<br />
**@intimate<br />
**@polite<br />
**@reverential<br />
**@superior<br />
*[[specification]] (WHICH)<br />
**@also (also)<br />
**@circa<br />
**@def (definite)<br />
***@both (both)<br />
***@distal (far from the speaker)<br />
***@each (each)<br />
***@either (either)<br />
***@medial (near the addressee)<br />
***@other (other)<br />
***@own (own)<br />
***@proximal (near the speaker)<br />
***@same (same)<br />
***@such (such)<br />
**@even<br />
**@indef (indefinite)<br />
***@certain (certain)<br />
***@wh<br />
**@neither<br />
**@only<br />
**@ordinal (ordinal)<br />
*syntactic structures (SYNA)<br />
**conventions<br />
***@angle_bracket<br />
***@brace<br />
***@double_parenthesis<br />
***@double_quote<br />
***@parenthesis<br />
***@single_quote<br />
***@square_bracket<br />
**@entry (sentence head)<br />
**@relative (relative clause head)<br />
**@speech (direct speech)<br />
**@title (title)<br />
**@vocative (vocative)<br />
*[[time]] (WHEN)<br />
**absolute tense<br />
***@past: at a time before the moment of utterance<br />
***@present: at the moment of utterance<br />
***@future: at a time after the moment of utterance<br />
***@recent: close to the moment of utterance<br />
***@remote: remote from the moment of utterance<br />
**relative tense<br />
***@anterior: before some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
***@posterior: after some other time other than the time of utterance<br />
**other<br />
***@after<br />
***@before<br />
***@during<br />
***@following<br />
***@prior_to<br />
***@since<br />
***@subsequent_to<br />
***@until<br />
*[[voice]] (VOIA)<br />
**@active: He built this house in 1895<br />
**@passive: This house was built in 1895.<br />
**@reflexive: He killed himself.<br />
**@reciprocal: They killed each other.<br />
}}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNL&diff=16727UNL2025-10-20T13:39:44Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Properties */</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Universal Networking Language''' (UNL) is an artificial language created to represent and process information across language barriers. <br />
<br />
== History == <br />
<br />
The [[UNL Programme]] started in 1996, as an initiative of the [http://www.ias.unu.edu Institute of Advanced Studies] of the [http://www.unu.edu United Nations University] in Tokyo, Japan. In January 2001, the United Nations University set up an autonomous organization, the [http://www.undlfoundation.org UNDL Foundation], to be responsible for the development and management of the UNL Programme. The Foundation, a non-profit international organisation, has an independent identity from the United Nations University, although it has special links with the United Nations. It inherited from the UNU/IAS the mandate of implementing the UNL Programme. Its headquarters are based in Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
<br />
The UNL Programme has already crossed important milestones. The overall architecture of the UNL System has been developed with a set of basic software and tools necessary for its functioning. These are being tested and improved. A vast amount of linguistic resources from the various native languages already under development has been accumulated in the last few years. Moreover, the technical infrastructure for expanding these resources is already in place, thus facilitating the participation of many more languages in the UNL system from now on. A growing number of scientific papers and academic dissertations on the UNL are being published every year. <br />
<br />
The most visible accomplishment so far is the recognition by the Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT) of the innovative character and industrial applicability of the UNL, which was obtained in May 2002 through the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Acquiring the patent for the UNL is a completely novel achievement within the United Nations.<br />
<br />
== Commitments ==<br />
The main goal of the UNL Programme is to construct the UNL, an artificial language that can be used to process information across the language barriers. The major commitments of the UNL are the following:<br />
<br />
;I - The UNL must represent information<br />
:The UNL is first and foremost a knowledge representation language. The most important corollary of this first commitment is that UNL is not a meta-language, i.e., it is not intended to describe or represent natural languages; on the contrary, it is used to represent the information conveyed by natural languages. The goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said". Accordingly, the UNL provides an '''interpretation''' rather than a translation of a given utterance. The UNL version of an existing document is not bound to preserve the lexical and the syntactic choices of the original, but must represent, in a non-ambiguous format, one of its possible meanings, preferably the most conventional one.<br />
<br />
;II - The UNL must be a language for computers<br />
:The UNL is an artificial language shaped to represent knowledge in a machine-tractable format. Like other formal systems, it seeks to provide the infrastructure for computers to handle what is meant by natural languages. Differently from other auxiliary languages (such as Esperanto, Interlingua, Volapük, Ido and others), the UNL is not intended to be a human language. We do not expect people to speak UNL or to communicate in UNL. But we do expect computers to process UNL: to generate UNL out of natural language, and vice-versa, with and without human aid. We expect computers to be able to extract information from UNL documents, and to detect paraphrases, entailments, implicatures, presuppositions, inferences, contradictions and redundancies among a set of propositions represented in UNL. <br />
<br />
;III - The UNL must be self-sufficient<br />
:In the UNL approach, there are two basic movements: [[UNLization]] and [[NLization]]. UNLization is the process of representing the information conveyed by natural language into UNL; NLization, conversely, is the process of generating a natural language document out of UNL. In order to be fully "understandable" (and manageable) by machines, the UNL must be self-sufficient, i.e., should be as semantically complete and saturated as possible. The UNL representation must not depend on any implicit knowledge, and should explicitly codify all information. This means that the UNLization should be completely independent from the NLization, and vice-versa, i.e., the UNLization should not take into consideration which will be the target language or format of any future NLization; and the NLization should not need any information about the original source language or previous structure of any UNL document. <br />
<br />
;IV - The UNL must be general-purpose<br />
:At first glance, the UNL seems to be a pivot-language to which the source texts are converted before being translated into the target languages. It can, in fact, be used for such a purpose, but its primary objective is to serve as an infrastructure for handling knowledge. In addition to translation, the UNL is expected to be used in several other different tasks, such as text mining, multilingual document generation, summarization, text simplification, information retrieval and extraction, sentiment analysis etc. Indeed, in UNL-based systems there is no need for the source language to be different from the target language: an English text may be represented in UNL in order to be generated, once again, in English, as a summarized, a simplified, a localized or a simply rephrased version of the original. <br />
<br />
;V - The UNL must be independent from any particular natural language<br />
:The UNL is expected to be the language of the United Nations and, therefore, must not be circumscribed to any existing natural language in particular, under the risk of being rejected by the state members of the General Assembly.<br />
<br />
== Assumptions ==<br />
;1. Languages convey information<br />
:The UNL assumes that one of the most outstanding uses of natural languages is to convey '''information''', i.e., that natural languages can be used to represent what we know about the world. This "aboutness" of natural languages, i.e., its representational role, is the main object of the UNL, which is expected, not to do what natural languages do, but to represent what they represent.<br />
<br />
;2. Information can be represented by semantic networks<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural language can be formally and usefully represented by a '''semantic network'''. This idea is not new. Semantic networks have been used in knowledge representation at least since Charles S. Peirce, and as an interlingua for machine translation since the 1950's. In the UNL approach, this semantic network (or UNL graph) is made of three different types of discrete semantic entities: concepts, relations and attributes. Concepts are nodes in the network; relations are arcs linking nodes; and attributes are used to delimit the use of nodes. This three-layered representation model is the cornerstone of the UNL, and a distinctive feature over other semantic networks, which normally propose only two levels: edges and vertices. <br />
<br />
;3. Any information may be expressed in any language<br />
:The UNL assumes that any information conveyed by natural languages is '''translatable''', i.e., that natural languages differ, not in their power to express information, but in the way they do that. The UNL also assumes that, in order to ensure this "translatability" of information, the semantic network must be independent of any natural language in particular (i.e., it must be "universal"<ref>The idea of "universality", in UNL, must be understood in the sense of "capable of being used and understood by all" (as in "Coordinated '''Universal''' Time (UTC)", or in "'''universal''' adapter"), rather than "common to all" (as in "'''Universal''' Grammar"). See [[Universal]].</ref>). This is achieved by defining a standard (uniform) set of universally-accessible semantic entities, which are the elements of UNL: [[Universal Word]]s (or UW's), [[Universal Relations]] and [[Universal Attributes]].<br />
<br />
== Properties ==<br />
;Non-Ambiguity<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is not expected to have any ambiguity, at any level. The sentence "The girls saw the boy with the telescope" must be represented, in UNL, in a way that there is no ambiguity concerning the meaning of "saw" (past tense of the verb "to see" x present tense of the verb "to saw" x noun "saw") or the dependency relations of "with the telescope" ("saw with the telescope" x "the boy with the telescope").<br />
;Non-Redundancy<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to have any redundancy. Expressions such as "free gift", "round circle" and "murder to death" are expected to be represented, in UNL, as "gift", "circle" and "murder", respectively. Likewise, sentences such as "Peter killed John", "Peter murdered John", "It's Peter who killed John" and "John was killed by Peter" are expected to be represented in UNL in the same way<ref>The differences between them can be represented by attributes such as @topic and @passive, but this is rather optional, because the goal of UNL is to represent "what was meant" and not "what was said" or "how it was said".</ref>.<br />
;Compositionality<br />
:As a formal system, the UNL is always literal, i.e., fully compositional. UNL expressions must derive their semantic value thoroughly from their components, which must be explicitly defined in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]]. Accordingly, the UNL does not allow for any figure of speech, such as metaphor and metonymy. Tropes must be represented, in UNL, by their intended meaning. A sentence such as "John devoured thousands of books", for instance, must be represented, in UNL, as "John read many books eagerly"<ref>The information that this content has been conveyed through figurative language can be indicated by the corresponding attributes (@metaphor, @hyperbole, etc.), but this is optional.</ref>. <br />
;Declarativeness<br />
:As a knowledge representation language, the UNL is not expected to perform speech acts (such as promises, requests, orders etc.), but only to describe them in a constative manner. For instance, given a performative utterance such as "Can you pass me the salt?", the role of the UNL is to represent "you pass the salt to me" and to indicate that this was a polite request<ref>This can be done by the use of the attributes @polite and @request.</ref>. The UNL representation itself will not be a request, nor will be bound to provoke the same (perlocutionary) effect caused by the original utterance.<br />
;Completeness<br />
:As a fully-explicit semantic system, the UNL is not expected to have ellipses or pro-forms, except when the referent is not present in the document (exophora). A sentence such as "The monkey took the banana and ate it" must be represented, in UNL, as "[The monkey]<sub>i</sub> took [the banana]<sub>j</sub> and [the monkey]<sub>i</sub> ate [the banana]<sub>j</sub>".<br />
<br />
== Structure ==<br />
{{:Semantic network}}<br />
<br />
== UNL Specs ==<br />
The structure of the UNL is defined by the [[Specs|UNL Specs]]. The UNL Specs specify the structure of a UNL document; the syntax of a UNL graph; the syntax of Universal Words; the set of relations; the set of attributes; and all the information concerning UNL as a formalism:<br />
*[[Universal Words]]<br />
*[[Universal Attributes]]<br />
*[[Universal Relations]]<br />
*[[UNL sentence|UNL sentence structure]]<br />
*[[UNL document|UNL document structure]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* Martins, R. (ed). (2013). Lexical issues of UNL. Cambridge Scholar Publishing.<br />
* Uchida, H.; Zhu, M.; Della Senta, T. (1999). A gift for a millenium. Tokyo: IAS/UNU.<br />
* UNL. (1996). Universal Networking Language: an electronic language for communication, understanding and collaboration. Tokyo: UNL Center.<br />
* Cardeñosa, J.; Gelbukh, A.; Tovar, E. (Eds.) (2005). [http://www.cicling.org/2005/UNL-book/ Universal Networking Language: Advances in Theory and Applications]. 443 pp.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=NLization&diff=16726NLization2025-10-20T13:24:56Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Precision */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''NLization''', formerly known as deconversion, is the process of generating natural language structures corresponding to UNL graphs. <br />
<br />
== Units ==<br />
The process of NLization may have different generation units, as follows:<br />
*Word-driven NLization<br />
*Sentence-driven NLization<br />
*Text-driven NLization<br />
<br />
== Paradigms ==<br />
The process of NLization may follow several different paradigms, as follows:<br />
*Language-based NLization (based mainly in a [[UNL Dictionary|UNL-NL dictionary]] and [[Grammar Specs|UNL-NL grammar]])<br />
*Knowledge-based NLization (based mainly in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]])<br />
*Memory-based NLization (based mainly in the [[UNL-NL Memory]])<br />
*Statistical-based NLization (based mainly in statistical predictions derived from UNL-NL corpora)<br />
*Dialogue-based NLization (based mainly in the interaction with the user)<br />
The actual NLization is normally hybrid and may combine several of the strategies above.<br />
<br />
== Recall == <br />
The process of NLization may target the whole source document or only parts of it (e.g. main clauses):<br />
*Full NLization (the whole source document is NLized)<br />
*Partial (or chunk) NLization (only a part of the source document is NLized)<br />
;agt(killed,Peter)obj(killed,John)ins(killed,knife)tim(killed,yesterday)<br />
:Full NLization: Peter killed John with a knife yesterday.<br />
:Partial NLization: Peter killed John<br />
<br />
== Precision ==<br />
The process of NLization may target the deep syntactic structure of the source graph (i.e., the resulting syntactic structure replicates the semantic structure of the original) or only its surface structure (the resulting syntactic structure does not preserve the semantic structure of the original)<br />
*Deep NLization (the NLization focus the deep syntactic structure of the source graph)<br />
*Shallow NLization (the NLization focus the surface syntactic structure of the source graph)<br />
Syntactic structures are preserved in the UNL document by the use of syntactic attributes (such as @passive, @topic, etc) or by hyper-nodes (i.e., [[scope]]s). <br />
;agt(killed.@passive,Peter)obj(killed.@passive,John)<br />
:Shallow NLization: Peter killed John<br />
:Deep NLization: John was killed by Peter<br />
<br />
== Level ==<br />
The process of NLization may target literal meanings (locutionary content) or non-literal meanings (ilocutionary content).<br />
*Locutionary (the NLization represents only the literal meaning)<br />
*Ilocutionary (the NLization represents also non-literal meanings, including speech acts)<br />
The ilocutionary force may be represented by figure of speech and speech acts attributes: <br />
;agt(pass.@request,you)gol(pass.@request,me)obj(pass.@request,salt)<br />
:Locutionary level: Pass me the salt<br />
:Ilocutionary level: Can you pass me salt? / Would you pass me the salt?<br />
<br />
== Methods ==<br />
Humans and machines may play different roles in NLization methods:<br />
*Fully automatic NLization (the whole process is carried out by the machine, without any intervention of the human user)<br />
*Human-aided machine NLization (the process is carried mainly by the machine, with some intervention of the human user, either as a pre-editor or as a post-editor, or during the NLization itself, as in dialogue-based NLization)<br />
*Machine-aided human NLization (the process is carried mainly by the human user, with some help of the machine, as in the dictionary or memory look-up)<br />
*Fully human NLization (the whole process is carried by the human user, without any intervention of the machine)<br />
<br />
== Tools ==<br />
For the time being, there are two NLization tools, as described below:<br />
{|border=1 cellpadding=3 align=center<br />
!Tool<br />
!Unit<br />
!Paradigms<br />
!Recall<br />
!Precision<br />
!Level<br />
!Method<br />
!Licence<br />
!Author<br />
|-<br />
|[[EUGENE]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB,EB,MB,DB<br />
|F,P<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA,HA<br />
|freeware<br />
|UNDLF<br />
|-<br />
|[[DeCo]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB<br />
|F<br />
|D<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA<br />
|shareware<br />
|UNLC<br />
|}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=NLization&diff=16725NLization2025-10-20T13:24:25Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Recall */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''NLization''', formerly known as deconversion, is the process of generating natural language structures corresponding to UNL graphs. <br />
<br />
== Units ==<br />
The process of NLization may have different generation units, as follows:<br />
*Word-driven NLization<br />
*Sentence-driven NLization<br />
*Text-driven NLization<br />
<br />
== Paradigms ==<br />
The process of NLization may follow several different paradigms, as follows:<br />
*Language-based NLization (based mainly in a [[UNL Dictionary|UNL-NL dictionary]] and [[Grammar Specs|UNL-NL grammar]])<br />
*Knowledge-based NLization (based mainly in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]])<br />
*Memory-based NLization (based mainly in the [[UNL-NL Memory]])<br />
*Statistical-based NLization (based mainly in statistical predictions derived from UNL-NL corpora)<br />
*Dialogue-based NLization (based mainly in the interaction with the user)<br />
The actual NLization is normally hybrid and may combine several of the strategies above.<br />
<br />
== Recall == <br />
The process of NLization may target the whole source document or only parts of it (e.g. main clauses):<br />
*Full NLization (the whole source document is NLized)<br />
*Partial (or chunk) NLization (only a part of the source document is NLized)<br />
;agt(killed,Peter)obj(killed,John)ins(killed,knife)tim(killed,yesterday)<br />
:Full NLization: Peter killed John with a knife yesterday.<br />
:Partial NLization: Peter killed John<br />
<br />
== Precision ==<br />
The process of NLization may target the deep syntactic structure of the source graph (i.e., the resulting syntactic structure replicates the semantic structure of the original) or only its surface structure (the resulting syntactic structure does not preserve the semantic structure of the original)<br />
*Deep NLization (the NLization focus the deep syntactic structure of the source graph)<br />
*Shallow NLization (the NLization focus the surface syntactic structure of the source graph)<br />
Syntactic structures are preserved in the UNL document by the use of syntactic attributes (such as @passive, @topic, etc) or by hyper-nodes (i.e., [[scope]]s). <br />
;agt(killed.@passive,Peter)obj(killed.@passive,Mary)<br />
:Shallow NLization: Peter killed Mary<br />
:Deep NLization: Mary was killed by Peter<br />
<br />
== Level ==<br />
The process of NLization may target literal meanings (locutionary content) or non-literal meanings (ilocutionary content).<br />
*Locutionary (the NLization represents only the literal meaning)<br />
*Ilocutionary (the NLization represents also non-literal meanings, including speech acts)<br />
The ilocutionary force may be represented by figure of speech and speech acts attributes: <br />
;agt(pass.@request,you)gol(pass.@request,me)obj(pass.@request,salt)<br />
:Locutionary level: Pass me the salt<br />
:Ilocutionary level: Can you pass me salt? / Would you pass me the salt?<br />
<br />
== Methods ==<br />
Humans and machines may play different roles in NLization methods:<br />
*Fully automatic NLization (the whole process is carried out by the machine, without any intervention of the human user)<br />
*Human-aided machine NLization (the process is carried mainly by the machine, with some intervention of the human user, either as a pre-editor or as a post-editor, or during the NLization itself, as in dialogue-based NLization)<br />
*Machine-aided human NLization (the process is carried mainly by the human user, with some help of the machine, as in the dictionary or memory look-up)<br />
*Fully human NLization (the whole process is carried by the human user, without any intervention of the machine)<br />
<br />
== Tools ==<br />
For the time being, there are two NLization tools, as described below:<br />
{|border=1 cellpadding=3 align=center<br />
!Tool<br />
!Unit<br />
!Paradigms<br />
!Recall<br />
!Precision<br />
!Level<br />
!Method<br />
!Licence<br />
!Author<br />
|-<br />
|[[EUGENE]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB,EB,MB,DB<br />
|F,P<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA,HA<br />
|freeware<br />
|UNDLF<br />
|-<br />
|[[DeCo]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB<br />
|F<br />
|D<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA<br />
|shareware<br />
|UNLC<br />
|}</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNLization&diff=16724UNLization2025-10-20T13:22:36Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Precision */</p>
<hr />
<div><b>UNLization</b>, formerly known as enconversion, is the process of "representing" the content of a natural language structure into UNL. This representation should be understood as a '''interpretation''' rather than as a '''translation''' of the source document, in the sense it is not necessarily committed to mimic its linguistic structure (such as lexical choice and syntax) but to extract its semantic structure (it must replicate concepts and relations between concepts conveyed by the linguistic structure).<br />
<br />
== Units ==<br />
The process of UNLization may have different representation units, as follows:<br />
*Word-driven UNLization (the source document is represented as a single network of individual concepts)<br />
*Sentence-driven UNLization (the source document is represented as a list of non-semantically related networks of individual concepts)<br />
*Text-driven UNLization (the source document is represented as a network of semantically related networks of individual concepts)<br />
In word-driven UNLization, the sentence boundaries and the structure of the source document are ignored, and the source document is represented as a single graph, i.e., as a simple network of individual concepts. In sentence-driven UNLization, the source document is analyzed, sentence by sentence, as a list of non-semantically related hyper-graphs. Each sentence is represented separately, and the only relation standing between sentences is the order in the source document. At last, text-driven UNLization targets the rhetorical structure of the source document, i.e., it analyzes the source document as a network of semantically related hyper-graphs. Word-driven UNLization is used mainly for information retrieval and extraction, whereas sentence- and text-driven UNLization are normally used for translation.<br />
<br />
== Paradigms ==<br />
The process of UNLization may follow several different paradigms, as follows:<br />
*Language-based UNLization (based mainly in a [[UNL Dictionary|NL-UNL dictionary]] and [[Grammar Specs|NL-UNL grammar]])<br />
*Knowledge-based UNLization (based mainly in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]])<br />
*Memory-based UNLization (based mainly in the [[UNL-NL Memory]])<br />
*Statistical-based UNLization (based mainly in statistical predictions derived from UNL-NL corpora)<br />
*Dialogue-based UNLization (based mainly in the interaction with the user)<br />
The actual UNLization is normally hybrid and may combine several of the strategies above.<br />
<br />
== Recall == <br />
The process of UNLization may target the whole source document or only parts of it (e.g. main clauses):<br />
*Full UNLization (the whole source document is UNLized)<br />
*Partial (or chunk) UNLization (only a part of the source document is UNLized)<br />
;Peter killed John with a knife yesterday morning.<br />
:Full UNLization: Peter saw John yesterday morning.<br />
:Partial UNLization: Peter saw John.<br />
<br />
== Precision ==<br />
The process of UNLization may target the deep semantic structure of the source document (i.e., the resulting semantic structure replicates the syntactic structure of the original) or only its surface structure (the resulting semantic structure does not preserve the syntactic structure of the original)<br />
*Deep UNLization (the UNLization focus the deep semantic structure of the source document)<br />
*Shallow UNLization (the UNLization focus the surface semantic structure of the source document)<br />
Syntactic structures are preserved in the UNL document by the use of syntactic attributes (such as @passive, @topic, etc) or by hyper-nodes (i.e., [[scope]]s). For some purposes, as translation, UNLization may require syntactic details; for others, such as information retrieval, syntactic structures at this level are not normally necessary:<br />
;Mary was kissed by Peter<br />
:Shallow UNLization: Peter kissed Mary<br />
:Deep UNLization: [Peter kissed Mary].@passive<br />
;Mary saw Peter going to Paris.<br />
:Shallow UNLization: Mary saw Peter & Peter was going to Paris<br />
:Deep UNLization: Mary saw [Peter going to Paris].<br />
;As for the little girl, the dog licked her.<br />
:Shallow UNLization: the dog licked the little girl<br />
:Deep UNLization: the dog licked [the little girl].@topic<br />
<br />
== Level ==<br />
The process of UNLization may target literal meanings (locutionary content) or non-literal meanings (ilocutionary content).<br />
*Locutionary (the UNLization represents only the literal meaning)<br />
*Ilocutionary (the UNLization represents also non-literal meanings, including speech acts)<br />
The ilocutionary force may be represented by figure of speech and speech acts attributes: <br />
;It is as soft as concrete<br />
:Locutionary level: it is as soft as concrete<br />
:Ilocutionary level: [it is as soft as concrete].@irony<br />
;Can you pass me the salt?<br />
:Locutionary level: can you pass me the salt?<br />
:Ilocutionaruy level: [you pass me the salt].@request<br />
<br />
== Methods ==<br />
Humans and machines may play different roles in UNLization methods:<br />
*Fully automatic UNLization (the whole process is carried out by the machine, without any intervention of the human user)<br />
*Human-aided machine UNLization (the process is carried mainly by the machine, with some intervention of the human user, either as a pre-editor or as a post-editor, or during the UNLization itself, as in dialogue-based UNLization)<br />
*Machine-aided human UNLization (the process is carried mainly by the human user, with some help of the machine, as in the dictionary or memory lookup)<br />
*Fully human UNLization (the whole process is carried by the human user, without any intervention of the machine)<br />
<br />
== Tools ==<br />
For the time being, there are four UNLization tools, as described below:<br />
{|border=1 cellpadding=3 align=center<br />
!Tool<br />
!Unit<br />
!Paradigms<br />
!Recall<br />
!Precision<br />
!Level<br />
!Method<br />
!Licence<br />
!Author<br />
|-<br />
|[[IAN]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB,EB,MB,DB<br />
|F,P<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA,HA<br />
|freeware<br />
|UNDLF<br />
|-<br />
|[[SEAN]]<br />
|word<br />
|LB,KB,EB,MB<br />
|P<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA<br />
|freeware<br />
|BA<br />
|-<br />
|[[UNL Editor]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,MB<br />
|F,B<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|MA<br />
|freeware<br />
|UNDLF<br />
|-<br />
|[[EnCo]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB<br />
|F<br />
|D<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA<br />
|shareware<br />
|UNLC<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Challenges ==<br />
=== Lexical and syntactic ambiguity ===<br />
The UNL document does not contain the ambiguities of the original, and will only encode one of its possible semantic realisations, preferably the most frequent one:<br />
;The bank crashed.<br />
:UNL is not able to preserve the lexical ambiguity of the word "bank" in the sentence above. The UNL representation will necessarily choose between one of the possible concepts conveyed by the English word "bank".<br />
;The boy saw the girl with binoculars<br />
:UNL is not able to represent the syntactic ambiguity of the sentence above. The UNL representation will necessarily choose between one of the possible syntactic structures of the sentence.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNLization&diff=16723UNLization2025-10-20T13:21:27Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* Recall */</p>
<hr />
<div><b>UNLization</b>, formerly known as enconversion, is the process of "representing" the content of a natural language structure into UNL. This representation should be understood as a '''interpretation''' rather than as a '''translation''' of the source document, in the sense it is not necessarily committed to mimic its linguistic structure (such as lexical choice and syntax) but to extract its semantic structure (it must replicate concepts and relations between concepts conveyed by the linguistic structure).<br />
<br />
== Units ==<br />
The process of UNLization may have different representation units, as follows:<br />
*Word-driven UNLization (the source document is represented as a single network of individual concepts)<br />
*Sentence-driven UNLization (the source document is represented as a list of non-semantically related networks of individual concepts)<br />
*Text-driven UNLization (the source document is represented as a network of semantically related networks of individual concepts)<br />
In word-driven UNLization, the sentence boundaries and the structure of the source document are ignored, and the source document is represented as a single graph, i.e., as a simple network of individual concepts. In sentence-driven UNLization, the source document is analyzed, sentence by sentence, as a list of non-semantically related hyper-graphs. Each sentence is represented separately, and the only relation standing between sentences is the order in the source document. At last, text-driven UNLization targets the rhetorical structure of the source document, i.e., it analyzes the source document as a network of semantically related hyper-graphs. Word-driven UNLization is used mainly for information retrieval and extraction, whereas sentence- and text-driven UNLization are normally used for translation.<br />
<br />
== Paradigms ==<br />
The process of UNLization may follow several different paradigms, as follows:<br />
*Language-based UNLization (based mainly in a [[UNL Dictionary|NL-UNL dictionary]] and [[Grammar Specs|NL-UNL grammar]])<br />
*Knowledge-based UNLization (based mainly in the [[UNL Knowledge Base]])<br />
*Memory-based UNLization (based mainly in the [[UNL-NL Memory]])<br />
*Statistical-based UNLization (based mainly in statistical predictions derived from UNL-NL corpora)<br />
*Dialogue-based UNLization (based mainly in the interaction with the user)<br />
The actual UNLization is normally hybrid and may combine several of the strategies above.<br />
<br />
== Recall == <br />
The process of UNLization may target the whole source document or only parts of it (e.g. main clauses):<br />
*Full UNLization (the whole source document is UNLized)<br />
*Partial (or chunk) UNLization (only a part of the source document is UNLized)<br />
;Peter killed John with a knife yesterday morning.<br />
:Full UNLization: Peter saw John yesterday morning.<br />
:Partial UNLization: Peter saw John.<br />
<br />
== Precision ==<br />
The process of UNLization may target the deep semantic structure of the source document (i.e., the resulting semantic structure replicates the syntactic structure of the original) or only its surface structure (the resulting semantic structure does not preserve the syntactic structure of the original)<br />
*Deep UNLization (the UNLization focus the deep semantic structure of the source document)<br />
*Shallow UNLization (the UNLization focus the surface semantic structure of the source document)<br />
Syntactic structures are preserved in the UNL document by the use of syntactic attributes (such as @passive, @topic, etc) or by hyper-nodes (i.e., [[scope]]s). For some purposes, as translation, UNLization may require syntactic details; for others, such as information retrieval, syntactic structures at this level are not normally necessary:<br />
;Mary was killed by Peter<br />
:Shallow UNLization: Peter killed Mary<br />
:Deep UNLization: [Peter killed Mary].@passive<br />
;Mary saw Peter going to Paris.<br />
:Shallow UNLization: Mary saw Peter & Peter was going to Paris<br />
:Deep UNLization: Mary saw [Peter going to Paris].<br />
;As for the little girl, the dog licked her.<br />
:Shallow UNLization: the dog licked the little girl<br />
:Deep UNLization: the dog licked [the little girl].@topic<br />
<br />
== Level ==<br />
The process of UNLization may target literal meanings (locutionary content) or non-literal meanings (ilocutionary content).<br />
*Locutionary (the UNLization represents only the literal meaning)<br />
*Ilocutionary (the UNLization represents also non-literal meanings, including speech acts)<br />
The ilocutionary force may be represented by figure of speech and speech acts attributes: <br />
;It is as soft as concrete<br />
:Locutionary level: it is as soft as concrete<br />
:Ilocutionary level: [it is as soft as concrete].@irony<br />
;Can you pass me the salt?<br />
:Locutionary level: can you pass me the salt?<br />
:Ilocutionaruy level: [you pass me the salt].@request<br />
<br />
== Methods ==<br />
Humans and machines may play different roles in UNLization methods:<br />
*Fully automatic UNLization (the whole process is carried out by the machine, without any intervention of the human user)<br />
*Human-aided machine UNLization (the process is carried mainly by the machine, with some intervention of the human user, either as a pre-editor or as a post-editor, or during the UNLization itself, as in dialogue-based UNLization)<br />
*Machine-aided human UNLization (the process is carried mainly by the human user, with some help of the machine, as in the dictionary or memory lookup)<br />
*Fully human UNLization (the whole process is carried by the human user, without any intervention of the machine)<br />
<br />
== Tools ==<br />
For the time being, there are four UNLization tools, as described below:<br />
{|border=1 cellpadding=3 align=center<br />
!Tool<br />
!Unit<br />
!Paradigms<br />
!Recall<br />
!Precision<br />
!Level<br />
!Method<br />
!Licence<br />
!Author<br />
|-<br />
|[[IAN]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB,EB,MB,DB<br />
|F,P<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA,HA<br />
|freeware<br />
|UNDLF<br />
|-<br />
|[[SEAN]]<br />
|word<br />
|LB,KB,EB,MB<br />
|P<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA<br />
|freeware<br />
|BA<br />
|-<br />
|[[UNL Editor]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,MB<br />
|F,B<br />
|D,S<br />
|L,I<br />
|MA<br />
|freeware<br />
|UNDLF<br />
|-<br />
|[[EnCo]]<br />
|sentence<br />
|LB,KB<br />
|F<br />
|D<br />
|L,I<br />
|FA<br />
|shareware<br />
|UNLC<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Challenges ==<br />
=== Lexical and syntactic ambiguity ===<br />
The UNL document does not contain the ambiguities of the original, and will only encode one of its possible semantic realisations, preferably the most frequent one:<br />
;The bank crashed.<br />
:UNL is not able to preserve the lexical ambiguity of the word "bank" in the sentence above. The UNL representation will necessarily choose between one of the possible concepts conveyed by the English word "bank".<br />
;The boy saw the girl with binoculars<br />
:UNL is not able to represent the syntactic ambiguity of the sentence above. The UNL representation will necessarily choose between one of the possible syntactic structures of the sentence.</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNL2010&diff=16722UNL20102025-10-20T13:17:38Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>The specifications here stated are still experimental and tentative, and have been continuously extended and amended in order to be as comprehensive as possible. They follow the general strategies defined in the [http://www.undl.org UNL 2005 Specifications] (version of June 7th, 2005), but introduce several important changes derived from different UNLization experiences. Although formally adopted in the UNDL Foundation tools, projects and certificates, they should not be taken yet as the official specs, as they are still under construction and have not been widely discussed with the UNL Community. <br />
<br />
*[[UNL|Introduction to UNL]]<br />
*[[Universal Words]]<br />
*[[Universal Attributes]]<br />
*[[Universal Relations]]<br />
*[[UNL sentence|UNL sentence structure]]<br />
*[[UNL document|UNL document structure]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=UNLization_Guidelines&diff=16721UNLization Guidelines2025-10-20T13:17:18Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Changed redirect target from Talk:UNL2010 to UNL2010</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[UNL2010]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Syntactic_relations&diff=16720Syntactic relations2025-10-20T13:15:55Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Syntactic roles''' are the roles that constituents play inside a syntactic structure. The UNL<sup>arium</sup> framework follows the [[Syntax|X-bar approach]] and proposes six main syntactic roles:<br />
<br />
*'''HEAD''' is the nucleus or the source of the whole syntactic structure, which is actually derived (or projected) out of it. In the UNL<sup>arium</sup> framework, there are 8 possible heads:<br />
**'''N''' = nouns and nominals<br />
**'''J''' = adjectives and adjectivals<br />
**'''V''' = full verbs and verbals<br />
**'''A''' = adverbs and adverbials<br />
**'''P''' = adpositions (prepositions, postpositions, circumpositions)<br />
**'''I''' = auxiliary verbs<br />
**'''D''' = determiners<br />
**'''C''' = complementizers (conjunctions)<br />
*'''COMP''' (i.e., complement) is an internal argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which is necessary to the head to complete its meaning (e.g., objects of transitive verbs);<br />
*'''ADJT''' (i.e., adjunct) is a word, phrase or clause which modifies the head but which is not syntactically required by it (adjuncts are expected to be extranuclear, i.e., removing an adjunct would leave a grammatically well-formed sentence);<br />
*'''SPEC''' (i.e., specifier) is an external argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which qualifies (determines) the head;<br />
*'''XB''' (intermediate projection) is any of the intermediate structures projected out of the head; and<br />
*'''XP''' (maximal projection) is the most comprehensive structure projected out of the head.<br />
<br />
These general roles are further specified according to the eight possible syntactic heads as follows:<br />
<br />
{{#tree:id=SYN|openlevels=0|root=Syntactic roles (SYN)|<br />
*adjunct (XA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of an adjective phrase (JA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of an adverbial phrase (AA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of a complementizer phrase (CA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of a determiner phrase (DA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of an inflectional phrase (IA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of a nominal phrase (NA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of a prepositional phrase (PA)<br />
**adjunct to the head of a verbal phrase (VA)<br />
*complement (XC)<br />
**complement of the head of an adjective phrase (JC)<br />
**complement of the head of an adverbial phrase (AC)<br />
**complement of the head of a complementizer phrase (CC)<br />
**complement of the head of a determiner phrase (DC)<br />
**complement of the head of an inflectional phrase (IC)<br />
**complement of the head of a nominal phrase (NC)<br />
**complement of the head of a prepositional phrase (PC)<br />
**complement of the head of a verbal phrase (VC)<br />
*head (XH)<br />
**head of an adverbial phrase (AH)<br />
**head of an adjective phrase (JH)<br />
**head of a complementizer phrase (CH)<br />
**head of a determiner phrase (DH)<br />
**head of an inflectional phrase (IH)<br />
**head of a nominal phrase (NH)<br />
**head of a prepositional phrase (PH)<br />
**head of a verbal phrase (VH)<br />
*specifier (XS)<br />
**specifier of the head of an adjective phrase(JS)<br />
**specifier of the head of an adverbial phrase (AS)<br />
**specifier of the head of a complementizer phrase (CS)<br />
**specifier of the head of a determiner phrase(DS)<br />
**specifier of the head of an inflectional phrase (IS)<br />
**specifier of the head of a nominal phrase (NS)<br />
**specifier of the head of a prepositional phrase (PS)<br />
**specifier of the head of a verbal phrase (VS)<br />
*maximal projection (XP)<br />
**adjective phrase (JP)<br />
**adverbial phrase (AP)<br />
**complementizer phrase (CP)<br />
**determiner phrase (DP)<br />
**inflectional phrase (IP)<br />
**nominal phrase (NP)<br />
**prepositional phrase (PP)<br />
**verbal phrase (VP)<br />
*intermediate projection (XB)<br />
**adverbial phrase (AB)<br />
**adjective phrase (JB)<br />
**complementizer phrase (CB)<br />
**determiner phrase (DB)<br />
**inflectional phrase (IB)<br />
**nominal phrase (NB)<br />
**prepositional phrase (PB)<br />
**verbal phrase (VB)<br />
*trace (TRACE)<br />
}}<br />
<br />
= Examples =<br />
*complement of the head of an adverbial phrase (AC): contrarily [to popular belief]<br />
*specifier of the head of an adverbial phrase (AS): [nearly] always<br />
*complement of the head of a complementizer phrase (CC): if [John comes]<br />
*specifier of the head of a complementizer phrase (CS): [even] if <br />
*specifier of the head of a determiner phrase(DS): [almost] every<br />
*complement of the head of an inflectional phrase (IC): will [kiss Peter]<br />
*specifier of the head of an inflectional phrase (IS): [Mary] will (kiss Peter)<br />
*adjunct to the head of an adjective phrase (JA): beautiful [to see]<br />
*complement of the head of an adjective phrase (JC): loyal [to the queen]<br />
*specifier of the head of an adjective phrase(JS): [very] loyal<br />
*adjunct to the head of a nominal phrase (NA): [beautiful] table<br />
*complement of the head of a nominal phrase (NC): construction [of Babel]<br />
*specifier of the head of a nominal phrase (NS): [the] construction<br />
*complement of the head of a prepositional phrase (PC): under [the table]<br />
*specifier of the head of a prepositional phrase (PS): [right] under<br />
*adjunct to the head of a verbal phrase (VA): loved [desperately]<br />
*complement of the head of a verbal phrase (VC): loved [Mary]<br />
*specifier of the head of a verbal phrase (VS): [never] loved<br />
<br />
= Further information =<br />
For further information on the syntax approach of the UNL<sup>arium</sup> refer to [[X-bar]].</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Syntactic_roles&diff=16719Syntactic roles2025-10-20T13:15:00Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Changed redirect target from Talk:Syntactic relations to Syntactic relations</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Syntactic relations]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=FRAR&diff=16718FRAR2025-10-20T13:14:23Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: Changed redirect target from Subcategorization rule to Subcategorization rules</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Subcategorization rules]]</div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=16717Main Page2025-10-20T13:07:22Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
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<div>__NOTOC__ <br />
<div align="center"><br />
{| border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL System ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Programme ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify"| [[Image:unl.jpeg|100px|left]] <br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[UNL|Introduction to UNL]]<br />
*[[Specs|UNL Specs]]<br />
*[[Dictionary Specs]]<br />
*[[Grammar Specs]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Dev.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[UNL System]]<br />
*[[Lingware|Lingware]]<br />
*[[Software|Software]]<br />
*[[FoR-UNL]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Researcher.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[Projects|Projects]]<br />
*[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=%22universal+networking+language%22&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0 Publications]<br />
*[[UNL School]]<br />
*[[UNL Olympiad]]<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" | &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== UNLweb ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Wiki ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNDL Foundation ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"| <br />
*[[UNLarium]] <br />
*[[UNLdev]] <br />
*[[VALERIE]]<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNL Wiki is a collaborative website for exchanging information about the UNL.<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNDL Foundation is a non-profit organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, which has received, from the United Nations, the mandate for implementing the UNL. <br /><br />[[Image:undl.jpeg|100px|right]] <br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="8" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
|}<br />
</div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=16716Main Page2025-10-20T13:06:20Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__ <br />
<div align="center"><br />
{| border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL System ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Programme ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify"| [[Image:unl.jpeg|100px|left]] <br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[Introduction to UNL]]<br />
*[[Specs|UNL Specs]]<br />
*[[Dictionary Specs]]<br />
*[[Grammar Specs]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Dev.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[UNL System]]<br />
*[[Lingware|Lingware]]<br />
*[[Software|Software]]<br />
*[[FoR-UNL]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Researcher.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[Projects|Projects]]<br />
*[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=%22universal+networking+language%22&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0 Publications]<br />
*[[UNL School]]<br />
*[[UNL Olympiad]]<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" | &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== UNLweb ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Wiki ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNDL Foundation ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"| <br />
*[[UNLarium]] <br />
*[[UNLdev]] <br />
*[[VALERIE]]<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNL Wiki is a collaborative website for exchanging information about the UNL.<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNDL Foundation is a non-profit organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, which has received, from the United Nations, the mandate for implementing the UNL. <br /><br />[[Image:undl.jpeg|100px|right]] <br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="8" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
|}<br />
</div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=16715Main Page2025-10-20T13:05:46Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__ <br />
<div align="center"><br />
{| border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL System ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Programme ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify"| [[Image:unl.jpeg|100px|left]] <br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[Introduction to UNL]]<br />
*[[Specs|UNL Specs]]<br />
*[[Dictionary Specs]]<br />
*[[Grammar Specs]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Dev.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[UNL System]]<br />
*[[Lingware|Lingware]]<br />
*[[Software|Software]]<br />
*[[FoR-UNL]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Researcher.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[Projects|Projects]]<br />
*[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=%22universal+networking+language%22&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0 Publications]<br />
*[[UNL School]]<br />
*[[UNL Olympiad]]<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" | &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== UNLweb ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Wiki ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNDL Foundation ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"| <br />
*[[UNLarium]] <br />
*[[UNLdev]] <br />
*[[VALERIE]] (December 2012)<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNL Wiki is a collaborative website for exchanging information about the UNL.<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNDL Foundation is a non-profit organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, which has received, from the United Nations, the mandate for implementing the UNL. <br /><br />[[Image:undl.jpeg|100px|right]] <br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="8" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
|}<br />
</div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=16714Main Page2025-10-20T13:04:31Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: /* UNL Programme */</p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__ <br />
<div align="center"><br />
{| border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="0" style="border-collapse: collapse"<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== UNL ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL System ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Programme ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify"| [[Image:unl.jpeg|100px|left]] <br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[Introduction to UNL]]<br />
*[[Specs|UNL Specs]]<br />
*[[Dictionary Specs]]<br />
*[[Grammar Specs]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Dev.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[UNL System]]<br />
*[[Lingware|Lingware]]<br />
*[[Software|Software]]<br />
*[[FoR-UNL]]<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="10%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| [[Image:Researcher.png]]<br />
| width="20%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
*[[Projects|Projects]]<br />
*[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=%22universal+networking+language%22&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0 Publications]<br />
*[[UNL School]]<br />
*[[UNL Olympiad]]<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" | &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| &nbsp;<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"|<br />
<br />
== Past Events ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNL Wiki ==<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
== UNDL Foundation ==<br />
|-<br />
<br />
| width="30%" colspan="2" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"| <br />
*[[XV UNL School]] (21-25 July 2014)<br />
*[[III UNL Olympiad]] (April 2014)<br />
*[[I UNL Panel]] (December 2012)<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNL Wiki is a collaborative website for exchanging information about the UNL.<br />
| | &nbsp;<br />
| width="30%" style="text-align:justify" valign="top" colspan="2"|The UNDL Foundation is a non-profit organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, which has received, from the United Nations, the mandate for implementing the UNL. <br /><br />[[Image:undl.jpeg|100px|right]] <br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="8" style="text-align:justify" valign="top"| <br />
|}<br />
</div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=File:NP1.png&diff=16713File:NP1.png2025-10-20T13:03:06Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
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<div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=File:HDR.png&diff=16712File:HDR.png2025-10-20T13:02:54Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
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<div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=File:Events.png&diff=16711File:Events.png2025-10-20T13:02:36Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
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<div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=File:2O_results3.png&diff=16710File:2O results3.png2025-10-20T13:02:27Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
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<div></div>Ronaldotmartinshttps://unlarchive.org/wiki/index.php?title=File:Coordination.png&diff=16709File:Coordination.png2025-10-20T13:02:10Z<p>Ronaldotmartins: </p>
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<div></div>Ronaldotmartins