X-bar theory: Difference between revisions

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== Phrases ==
== Phrases ==
Specifiers, complements and adjuncts are themselves complex syntactic structures (XPs) which are combined to form the sentence structure::
Specifiers, complements and adjuncts are themselves complex syntactic structures (XPs) which are combined to form the sentence structure:
 
{|border=1 cellpadding=2 align=center
!rowspan=5|PHRASE
!colspan=4|STRUCTURE
|-
!colspan=4|XP
|-
!rowspan=3|SPEC
!colspan=3|XB
|-
!colspan=2|XB
!rowspan=2|ADJT
|-
!HEAD
!COMP
|-
!NP
!DP
!N
!PP
!JP,PP
|-
!VP
!AP
!V
!NP,PP
!PP,JP,AP
|-
!JP
!AP
!J
!PP
!AP,PP
|-
!AP
!AP
!A
!PP
!PP,AP
|-
!PP
!AP
!P
!NP,JP,VP
!AP
|-
!DP
!AP
!D
!
!AP
|-
!IP
!NP
!I
!VP
!AP
|-
!CP
!AP
!C
!IP
!AP
|-
|}
=== Examples ===
 
 
 
 
{|
{|
!construction
!construction
Line 332: Line 261:
</pre>  
</pre>  
|}
|}
The list of possible arrangements in English is depicted in the table below:
{|border=1 cellpadding=2 align=center
!rowspan=5|PHRASE
!colspan=4|STRUCTURE
|-
!colspan=4|XP
|-
!rowspan=3|SPEC
!colspan=3|XB
|-
!colspan=2|XB
!rowspan=2|ADJT
|-
!HEAD
!COMP
|-
!NP
!DP
!N
!PP
!JP,PP
|-
!VP
!AP
!V
!NP,PP
!PP,JP,AP
|-
!JP
!AP
!J
!PP
!AP,PP
|-
!AP
!AP
!A
!PP
!PP,AP
|-
!PP
!AP
!P
!NP,JP,VP
!AP
|-
!DP
!AP
!D
!
!AP
|-
!IP
!NP
!I
!VP
!AP
|-
!CP
!AP
!C
!IP
!AP
|-
|}
=== Examples ===


== References ==
== References ==
<references/>
<references/>

Revision as of 15:42, 20 January 2010

Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages.

X-bar theory

The syntactic framework of the UNLarium derives from the X-bar theory [1], which postulates that all human languages share certain structural similarities, including the same underlying syntactic structure, whose abstract configuration is depicted in the diagram below: 

    XP
   / \
spec  XB
     / \
    XB  adjunct
   / \
  X   comp
  |
head

In the above:

  • X is the head, the nucleus or the source of the whole syntactic structure, which is actually derived (or projected) out of it.
  • comp (i.e., complement) is an internal argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which is necessary to the head to complete its meaning (e.g., objects of transitive verbs)
  • adjunct is a word, phrase or clause which modifies the head but which is not syntactically required by it (adjuncts are expected to be extranuclear, i.e., removing an adjunct would leave a grammatically well-formed sentence)
  • spec (i.e., specifier) is an external argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which qualifies (determines) the head
  • XB (X-bar) is the general name for any of the intermediate projections derived from X
  • XP (X-bar-bar, X-double-bar, X-phrase) is the maximal projection of X.

A key assumption of X-bar theory is that branching is always binary, if it occurs. This means that specifiers, complements and adjuncts are optional and that there can be as many XBs as necessary: 

  XP
  |
  XB
  |
 head

   XP
  /  \ 
spec XB
     |
    head

    XP
    |  
    XB
   /  \ 
head  comp 

    XP
    |  
    XB
   /  \ 
head  adjt 

   XP
  /  \  
spec  XB
     /  \ 
  head  adjt 

    XP
   / \
spec  XB
     / \
    XB  comp
   / \
  X   comp
  |
head

    XP
   / \
spec  XB
     / \
    XB adjt
   / \
  XB  comp
 / \
X   comp
|
head
etc.

The order of the constituents (specifiers, complements and adjuncts) is subject to language specific parametrization and may vary:

right complement left complement right adjunct left adjunct 
    XP
    |  
    XB
   /  \ 
head  comp 

    XP
    |  
    XB
   /  \ 
comp  head 

    XP
    |  
    XB
   /  \ 
head  adjt 

    XP
    |  
    XB
   /  \ 
adjt head
etc.

Constituents

Heads

In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, may be occupied by the following categories [2]

  • N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc
  • V = verbs
  • J = adjectives
  • A = adverbs
  • P = prepositions
  • D = determiners: articles, demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners, quantifiers
  • I = auxiliary verbs
  • C = conjunction

The heads define the nature of the phrase structures, thus:

  • N is the head of the Noun Phrase (NP)
  • V is the head of the Verbal Phrase (VP)
  • J is the head of the Adjectival Phrase (JP)
  • A is the head of the Adverbial Phrase (AP)
  • P is the head of the Prepositional Phrase (PP)
  • D is the head of the Determiner Phrase (DP)
  • I is the head of the Inflectional Phrase (IP)
  • C is the head of the Complementizer Phrase (CP)

Specifiers

Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head:

  • articles: the (book), a (book), etc.
  • possessive determiners: my (book), your (book), etc.
  • demonstrative determiners: this (book), that (book), etc.
  • quantifiers: no (answer), every (hour), etc.
  • intensifiers (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners): very (expensive), quite (well), nearly (under), kind of (like), etc.
  • frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc.
  • negative adverbs: not (go)

Complements

Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head:

  • direct objects: (do) something, (give) something
  • indirect objects: (laugh at) something, (give to) someone
  • complement of deverbals (i.e., nouns deriving from verbs): (construction of) the city, (arrival of) Peter
  • complement of adjectives: (loyal) to the queen, (interested) in Chemistry
  • complement of adverbs: (contrarily) to popular belief, (independently) from her
  • complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today
  • complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come

Adjuncts

Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head:

  • adjectives: beautiful (table)
  • manner adverbs: speak (slowly)
  • prepositional phrases: (table) of wood

etc.

Phrases

Specifiers, complements and adjuncts are themselves complex syntactic structures (XPs) which are combined to form the sentence structure:

construction the construction the fateful construction the fateful construction of Babel 
     NP
     |
     NB
     |
     N
     |
<b>construction</b>

     NP
   /    \  
spec     NB
 |        |
 DP       N
 |        |
 DB  construction
 |
 D
 |
the

       NP
    /     \  
spec        NB
 |        /     \
 DP    adjt      N
 |      |        |
 DB     JP  construction
 |      |
 D      JB
 |      |
the     J
        |
       fateful

         NP
    /         \  
spec           NB
 |         /        \
 DP    adjt          NB
 |      |          /     \ 
 DB     JP       N       comp
 |      |        |         |
 D      JB  construction   PP
 |      |                  |
the     J                  PB
        |                /    \
       fateful         P      comp
                       |        |       
                      of        NP
                                |
                                NB
                                |
                                N
                                |
                               Babel

The list of possible arrangements in English is depicted in the table below:

PHRASE STRUCTURE
XP
SPEC XB
XB ADJT
HEAD COMP
NP DP N PP JP,PP
VP AP V NP,PP PP,JP,AP
JP AP J PP AP,PP
AP AP A PP PP,AP
PP AP P NP,JP,VP AP
DP AP D AP
IP NP I VP AP
CP AP C IP AP

Examples

References

  1. ↑ Chomsky, Noam (1970). Remarks on nominalization. In: R. Jacobs and P. Rosenbaum (eds.) Reading in English Transformational Grammar, 184-221. Waltham: Ginn.
  2. ↑ In the X-bar theory, differently from the UNLarium approach, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.
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